The Effects of Age on Stress Levels and Its Affect on Overall Performance
Dr. Marian C. Schultz
The University of West Florida
Dr. James T. Schultz
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
This study sought to determine whether there is a significant relationship between the stress level exhibited by an individual during an evaluation and his or her chronological age. Previous studies have shown that there is no relationship between an individual’s stress level and his or her performance on an evaluation, but the age of the individual was not a variable considered in past research. The study utilizes a biofeedback measuring device to evaluate the individual’s stress level. The biofeedback measuring technique used in this study is a thermal device called the Biodot. A basic concept of biofeedback is that when an individual is experiencing stress, the skin temperature of the extremities decreases because blood is flowing into the smooth organs of the body torso, or vital functioning organs of the body. As the stress level declines, the body relaxes and the blood flow returns to the extremities, causing the temperature to rise. The Biodot changes color to reflect the skin temperature of the individual. Temperatures were recorded during periods when individuals were participating in examinations. The color of the Biodots reflects a specific temperature. A Pearson’s r test was performed to determine if there was a significant relationship between an individual’s stress level and the age during an evaluation. A review of the results found that there was no significant relationship between the age of an individual and the level of stress exhibited during an evaluation. Another Pearson’s r test was conducted to determine whether a relationship between age and evaluation scores was demonstrated. The test revealed that no significant relationship existed. A conclusion of this study is that there is no significant relationship between stress levels of individuals during evaluations, and their chronological age. The study further concludes that while stress affects everyone differently, age as a specific factor, does not affect the level of stress exhibited by an individual during an evaluation.
This study sought to determine whether there is a significant relationship between the stress level exhibited by an individual during an evaluation and his or her chronological age. Previous studies have shown that there is no relationship between an individual’s stress level and his or her performance on an evaluation, but the age of the individual was not a variable considered in past research. Everyone experiences stress on a daily basis, but a label of normalcy does not make it benign. It can lead to serious health problems, and it deserves attention (Caple, 2002). It is commonly accepted that an underlying stress issue causes over 60% of all visits to medical doctors. Seventy-two percent of American workers experience frequent, stress-related physical or mental conditions that greatly increase health care costs. Forty percent of employee turnover is due to stress. Approximately one million employees per day are absent from work due to stress related disorders (Wolley, 2000). Stress can be broadly defined as the result of any demand on the mind or body. A critical point is reached when the demand exceeds the person’s belief that it can be personally managed. The level of stress generated by any given stressor will vary from person to person. Stress does not always have a negative consequence; low levels of stress can be motivational and very beneficial experiences contributing to the growth and development of the person. Acute and/or chronic stress can weaken every system within the body and leading us to be more vulnerable to injury and disease. Experiments with laboratory rats have indicated that stress can actually kill. Although often difficult to isolate, it is now clear that stress can create, exacerbate, or perpetuate psychological and physiological disorders (for example, anxiety, depression, personality disorders, substance abuse, eating disorders, hypertension, tension headaches, migraines, peptic ulcers, coronary heart disease, viral infections, allergies, muscular and skeletal pain, and respiratory disorders (Caple, 2002).
When considering the psychophysiological mechanisms of stress, the stress response, it is immediately apparent that coping with stress, especially chronic stress, is not effortless. The stress response is a very complex and complicated set of functions that is mainly controlled by the brain. When a demand for change is perceived as threatening, a series of electrical and chemical activities begin to unfold within the brain. Eventually, these activities affect every part of the body. These actions are designed to change the activities of the body’s organs and systems in a way that prepares it to deal with the perceived threat. This preparation is commonly referred to as the “fight-or-flight” response, because both the mind and the body are made ready to either fight or escape from the perceived threat. Once the stress response is initiated, it tends to exert more control over the person then can be exerted over it. Under these circumstances, telling someone not to be afraid or to “stand tall and deal with it” may not help very much (Caple, 2002).
There is no age at which we are exempt from stress. Most of us are well aware that as a person chronologically ages, there are more responsibilities and situational stressors that become part of our lives which subsequently can bring about consequences affecting our well being. As adults, stress is a daily event, but children are not exempt from its impact and subsequent consequences. Symptoms of stress are especially apparent in teenagers (Bittman, 1999).
Stress actually occurs before a child takes his/her first breath (Bittman, 1999)! Researchers at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in New York measured fetal stress triggered by frustrations in the mother. In one study, expectant mothers were exposed to challenging computer exercises while their heart rate, blood pressure and breathing were monitored. Sensors simultaneously measured the fetal heart rate and movements. As the woman struggled with computer-generated challenges, their responses reflected biological changes consistent with stress, such as increased heart rate and elevations in blood pressure. The biological changes were also detected in the fetus (Bittman, 1999).
Medical research has established that prenatal stress could significantly influence development of the brain in the fetus. Researchers perceive that because stress affects many of the body’s systems - nervous, cardiovascular, endocrine and immune – there is probable reason to believe that severe emotional stress could cause defects in the fetus, especially during the first trimester of pregnancy when development occurs at its fastest rate. This is because severe stress and anxiety can lead to a reduced blood flow through the arteries that feed the uterus. Usually, the cranial nerve crest, a structure of cells that is thought to contribute to the development of the head and face in a fetus, is affected. According to Glover, research head of a study linking obstetrics, pediatrics, psychology and psychiatry, experiments on animals show that maternal, fetal, or neonatal experience can determine the stress responses of the developing offspring for life. If this is indeed correct, it could predispose children to have behavioral problems, such hyperactivity, or cause them to suffer from depression in later life (Lifepositive, 2002).
Aging is a natural and gradual process, except when exposed to extreme circumstances of stress or grief. Exposure to constant stressors or stress conditions can result in a loss in neural and hormonal balance. This loss of balance will cause increased oxidative damage accelerating the aging process. Chronic disturbances in body homeostasis ultimately affect our hormone secreting glands, cell repair, and collagen in our skin and connecting tissues. Immune and neural degenerative diseases prevent this otherwise inevitable process from following the normal and healthy course of events. Research suggests that long-term exposure to adrenal stress hormones may result in increased brain aging in later life. Scientists at the University of Kentucky considered the results of memory tests taken by elderly patients with high levels of the stress hormone cortisol, released by adrenal glands when the body is stressed. The high-level group scored lower than other groups with reduced levels of the hormone. The level of hormone released apparently affects the total volume of the brain’s hippocampus – a major source of recall and memory function in later life. Researchers found that those with high levels of hormone released had a hippocampus volume 14% less than those with lower levels. The study results suggest that, “chronic stress may accelerate hippocampal deterioration” leading to accelerated physical and brain aging (Lifepositive, 2002).
In a survey of U.S. adults aged 25 to 74 years of age, just 8% of young adults said they had even one stress-free day in a given week, compared with 12% of mid-lifers and 19% of those over 60. The difference appears to be one of attitude according to Almeida of The University of Arizona. “We’re finding that older people are mellowing a bit”, he said. According to his research, the older we get, we kind of realize that “hey, it’s not worth getting upset about the small things” (Mundell, 2002). In the study, Almeida and his colleagues examined data from a large government survey of over 1,000 American adults known as The National Study of Midlife in the United States. As part of the study, researchers telephoned participants every evening for eight consecutive evenings, quizzing them on the amount and type of stressors they had faced that day. “And we found that, in sheer number of stressors that people reported, there was no difference between younger adults and midlife adults,” Almeida said. While these daily hassles tended to really upset those aged 25 to 39, “boomer” types aged 40 to 59 were more likely to shrug them off. “For example, being stuck in traffic presented a different result for the various age groups. The younger people in our sample would report that as more disruptive, more upsetting, than older people,” Almeida said. The solution was in the “people’s own perceptions, how they view their stressors,” he further stated. The nature of what stresses us out as we age appears to change as well. In our 20s and 30s, “it was likely to be over some interpersonal tension or disagreement they have with somebody,’ such as a lover, coworker or friend, Almeida stated. “Whereas midlife adults, their stressors were more related to being overloaded or having too many demands made on them.” “This makes sense,” he said, “because midlife is typically our most productive period, with many of us forced to juggle the demands of career, spouse, children and aging parents”. For the third group in the study, those aged 60 to 74; one concern – health problems – puts all others in the shade. At this age, “we’re going to deal with the little things much better – so we perceive things as being less severe,” Almeida said. However, “The stresses that do happen to people are out of their control and they are most often related to close friends and relatives being sick. So when they do happen they have more of an impact.” But the oldest age group still beat out the others when it came to overall trouble-free days: While young and middle-aged individuals reported significant stressors on an average of about 3 out of the 8 study days, that number dropped to close to 2 days among those 60 and over (Mundell, 2002).
Stress and Body Temperature
In 1939, Mittelmann and Wolff proved that experimentally induced affective disturbances were accompanied by a decrease in finger temperature. In another study, they concluded that fingertip temperature changes occurred during psychoanalytic interviews. They measured the minute-to-minute changes in finger temperature during the interviews. They discovered vasoconstriction in the fingers during increased conflict. Vasodilation was correlated with uninhibited action and increased emotional security. They found that temperature changes were correlated with the degree of emotional stress, whether this stress was conscious or below conscious awareness. They suggested that, as a subject tried to compensate for his emotional feelings by denying them, there was an accompanying fall in finger temperature. Mittelmann and Wolff defined emotional stress as anxiety, anger, embarrassment, humiliation, joy with anxiety, depression with hostility, guilt, fear of abandonment, and conflict over the use of the hands for aggressive and sexual purposes. They claimed that, when the subjects experienced or verbalized any of the above conflicts and stress during the interview, the finger temperature would decrease. If the subject denied such stress, but exhibited some bodily indication that the stress affected him, there was also a fall in finger temperature. The later lowering of peripheral finger temperature appeared to be greatest when the subject was not aware of his emotional conflict (O’Hair, 2002).
In 1995, Lowenstein conducted a study on stress and its relationship to temperature. According to the research, changes in hand/foot temperature are a reflection of blood flow, which measures the stress response. For example, while talking about an upsetting incident one’s temperature may drop 5 to 20 degrees. In contrast, when recalling a minor misunderstanding, temperature may only drop one degree. However, when recalling a positive experience, temperature may increase a full 10 degrees. What is surprising is how quickly the changes occur. The basic rule for interpreting temperature change is simple, warmer hands/feet indicate relaxation, while colder hands/feet reflect activation or tension. When the body’s fight/flight system is activated, the muscles tense while the heart rate increases. As a result, blood flow is shunted from the extremities and directed to the vital organs to facilitate the increased level of arousal. As a result, changes of 5, 10, or 15 degrees can occur within just a few minutes. The amount of temperature change depends on the stressor or problem, and how one reacts to stress (Lowenstein, 1995).
Depending on the degree of stress, hand temperature can change from 60 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Not everyone, however, reacts to stress through dramatically colder hands and feet. One may also react by tensing muscles like the forehead, jaw, shoulders, etc. Everyone reacts to stress in a personalized way. Hand temperature is just one way to measure stress levels.
There is no normal temperature but a range over which temperature fluctuates and changes. Figure 1 shows the relationship between a given hand temperature and the level of stress (Lowenstein, 1995).
|
Below 79o F |
79 – 84o F |
84 – 90o F |
90 – 95o F |
Above 95o F |
|
Below 26o C |
26 – 29o C |
29 – 32o C |
32 – 35o C |
Above 35o C |
|
Highly Tense |
Slightly Tense |
Mildly Calm |
Quietly Relaxed |
Deeply Relaxed |
Figure 1. Hand Temperature and Stress Level Relationship.
Biofeedback principles date back more than 50 years, while the actual practice is still considered to be relatively new. Before the relationship between stress, temperature and biofeedback can be discussed, an understanding of what biofeedback is must be established.
Schwartz defines biofeedback as
A group of therapeutic procedures that utilizes electronic or electromechanical instruments to accurately measure process, and ‘feed back’ to persons information with reinforcing properties about their neuromuscular and autonomic activity, both normal and abnormal, in the form of analog or binary, auditory and/or visual feedback signals. Best achieved with a competent biofeedback professional, the objectives are to help persons develop greater awareness and voluntary control over their physiological processes that are otherwise outside awareness and/or under less voluntary control, by first controlling the external signal, and then by the use of internal psychophysiological cues. (Schwartz,1999).
Simply defined, biofeedback is a means for gaining control of our body processes to increase relaxation, relieve stress, and pain. Biofeedback allows the individuals to recognize physiological responses, and alter them. Many physiological processes can be monitored for biofeedback applications. These are considered to be the most common biofeedback modalities: EMG (electromyography), EDA (electrodermal activity) Heart Rate, Respiration, EEG (electroencephalograph), and Temperature.
Electromyography (EMG)
Muscle activity is measured by the EMG (Electromyograph), which detects the electrical activity occurring within certain muscles, typically the trapezius (shoulder) and anterior temporalis (jaw and scalp) muscles. Muscle tension indicates stress; for example, it is common for people to react to the stress of anger by clenching their teeth and generally tensing up.
Electrodermal Activity (EDA)
Electrodermal activity (EDA) is measured in two ways: BSR (basal skin response) is a measure of the average activity of the endocrine (sweat) glands, and GSR (galvanic skin response) is a measure of the phasic activity (the high and low points) of endocrine gland activity. Most people are familiar with having cold, clammy hands under stressful circumstances, such as meeting new people or having to perform before an audience. The coldness comes from constriction of the smooth muscles surrounding the blood vessels (measured by temperature), while the dampness is caused by endocrine gland activity. The endocrine glands secrete a salty solution in response to emotional and stress stimuli, and this salty solution conducts electricity.
Heart rate is measured in beats per minute. Faster heart rates are often caused by stress; for example, heart rate may increase when individuals are frightened. Other types of stress, such as depression, may result in lower heart rates.
Respiration is measured in breaths per minute, typically by a strain gauge worn around the chest. Respiration becomes faster, shallower and uneven when one is stressed. It is not unusual for individuals to have a breath rate of between 16 and 30 per minute.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Brain waves are measured by the electroencephalograph (EEG). EEG is comprised of several bandwidths: Theta (4-7 Hz), Alpha (8-12 Hz), Beta (13-20 Hz), or Gamma (21+). Generally, beta and gamma are useful for directed activity and getting things done; alpha is useful in situations where relaxed vigilance is called for (such as meditation); and theta is useful for creative, day-dreamy generation of imagery (theta is sometimes called the gateway to the unconscious).
The temperature modality indicates the contraction or relaxation of the smooth muscles surrounding the blood vessels, which determine how much blood, reaches the fingertips. When these muscles are contracted (tense), the temperature is cooler because less blood reaches the fingers. We experience this coldness in our hands when we are stressed – for example, when going to a job interview and shaking hands with a prospective boss. It is not uncommon for people’s temperature readings to be as low as 70 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit, nor is it uncommon to see a difference of five or ten degrees between right and left hand measures. The brain is organized so that right hemisphere is associated with activity in the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere is associated with activity in the right side of the body. Some clinicians believe that when one hand is significantly colder than the other, this represents an imbalance in the activity of the right and left hemispheres of the brain (Schwartz, 1999).
Mittelmann and Wolff (1943) found that emotionally objectified anxiety did not lower finger temperature. If a subject could provide himself with an emotional security and a sense of self esteem, that is, to believe that he was relaxed; his finger temperature would remain at a high level rather than fall, as it would during perceived anxiety. Merely shutting out his emotional stress was not sufficient to prevent the fall of finger temperature, an active belief that he felt relaxed, with an accompanying sense of well-being, did prevent the fall of finger temperature (O’Hair, 1976).
The implications from the above-cited research for biofeedback are important. First, there is a clear link between emotional tension and finger temperature. Second, there is a correlation between the degree of the fall in finger temperature and the intensity of the subject’s anxiety. Third, the extent to which a subject is aware or unaware of an emotional conflict or sense of tension will not prevent the lowering of the finger temperature.
This result suggests that skin temperature could be considered a more “objective” index of a subject’s level of stress or anxiety although his subjective sense of the emotional feelings may not reflect this anxiety. Fourth, a subject can, through belief in his sense of well-being, security, or superiority, override his tension. If the subject can relax and objectify his emotional reactions, he can maintain his finger temperature at a high level. This latter finding suggests that subjects can have some voluntary control over their peripheral skin temperature by way of their mental state. It is also an important consideration in understanding biofeedback of finger temperature (O’Hair, 1976).
In 1972 another investigation of the clinical use of finger temperature biofeedback was undertaken. They treated subjects with migraine headaches using autogenic techniques. In addition, they used finger temperature biofeedback to assist the patients in gaining control of their vascular migraine headaches by warming their hands. It has been found that 85 % of patients who suffer from migraines also routinely display cool hands (25o C to 30o C). They found that there was a significant correlation with increases in finger temperature and reduction in migraine headaches (Sargent, Green & Walters, 1972).
The ability to interpret a person’s skin temperature has become a useful technique in biofeedback studies (Roberts, Kewman & MacDonald, 1973). The reaction of microencapsulated Cholesteric liquid crystals (MCLC) to various skin temperatures can be used to readily identify the homeostatic (state of arousal) condition being experienced by an individual. One MCLC product, the Biodot, is temperature sensitive and changes color in accordance with the user’s skin temperature, since skin temperature is purported to reflect a particular mood change in an individual (Schultz, Schultz & Williams, 1986). In order to understand the theory associated with Biodot functions, it is important to understand the operants that regulate the skin’s temperature. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) which controls the activity of our internal organs, glands, heart, lungs, and all the smooth muscles of the body, is made up of two opposing networks: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The SNS is activated in times of stress. Under duress, the body automatically undergoes vasoconstriction causing an increase in the amount of blood flowing to vital organs. Simultaneously, blood moves away from the extremities causing the temperature in these areas to decrease (Gatchel & Price, 1979), resulting in a color change in the Biodot (Schultz, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, 2002; Jenson, 1993). The PNS functions at slow metabolic rates or, at times, at rest. In this state, the blood flow is regulated throughout the body in a constant manner, causing the temperature of the skin to be higher than in times of stress (Gatchel & Price, 1979).
Biodots, developed by Biodots International, Inc., contain a spectrum of color capabilities. Each color variance corresponds to a given skin temperature. The Biodot is a small flat device, approximately one-quarter inch in diameter, with a small amount of adhesive on the back enabling it to adhere to the skin without temperature interference. Biodots are effective biofeedback devices due to the small size, quick reaction time, and ease of interpretation. According to data provided by the manufacturer, the ideal location to place the Biodot is on the back of the hand, between the thumb and index finger. For individuals with poor blood circulation, the Biodot should be placed on the upper and innermost portion of the forearm in order to more accurately reflect changes in the skin’s temperature. For accuracy and consistency in reading the Biodot, placement directly on the veins, arteries, or bones is not recommended (Biodot International, 2001).
Six previous studies utilized Biodots as a method of utilizing skin temperature to measure stress levels. Schultz, Schultz, and Williams (1986) investigated the differences in stress levels for business students taking written examinations and giving oral presentations. A second study by Schultz, Schultz, and Becker (1987) determined if a students’ stress level, prior to an examination, could predict final test scores. The third study by Schultz, Leptrone, and Schultz (1988) measured stress levels created by various types of examinations. The fourth study by Jenson, Schultz and Schultz (1993) evaluated stress variations occurring during evaluations. The fifth study by Schultz, Schultz and Riley (1990), and a sixth by Schultz and Schultz (2002) examined the affects on performance resulting in variations in stress levels.
According to Barrios, the inventor of the stress control card, it is extremely important for an individual to detect stressful situations in order to avoid subsequent stress-related problems, for example high blood pressure. As an alternative to the Biodot, the stress control card has successfully reduced many stress related problems because of its ability to detect temperature changes indicative of stress (Mullich, 1984).
Summary
Emotion is a continuously changing part of our everyday lives. According to Lazarus (1977), shifts in emotion are due to perceived and appraised changes in an individual’s relationship with his environment, based in part on feedback from the situation and from his own reactions to his perceived environment interaction. Basically, a person will attempt to overcome a stressful situation by postponing, preventing recognition of the problem, or by tolerating it.
Coping with a perceived problem is the body’s way of maintaining internal stability and is referred to as homeostasis. This self-regulatory process takes place when physiological measures are outside normal limits (Gaarder, 1981). The external reaction to stress can lead to a change in the values of various homeostatically mediated physiological parameters beyond their normal limits. According to Gaarder (1981), when the stress becomes chronic, the homeostatic mechanism can “reset” itself at a new abnormal level, never to return to its initial setting even after the stress is gone. Thus, many medical cases can be traced back to stress as a pre-condition for the emergence of the disease (Kiritz & Moos, 1974; Singer, 1974; Benson, 1975).
Statement of the Hypothesis
The research hypothesis states that there is a significant relationship between the level of stress experienced by individuals during an evaluation and their chronological age.
The null hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship between the level of stress experienced by individuals during an evaluation, and their chronological age, as measured at the ∂ = .05 level of significance.
The significance of this research is to predict how age might affect an individual’s stress level during an evaluation. If the individual understands that he will experience stress under specific situations that will minimize his performance effectiveness, then preventative biofeedback measures can be undertaken to reduce the level of stress.
The survey population consisted of 499 students who were enrolled in classes at The University of West Florida at their Pensacola and Fort Walton Beach Florida locations, and Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University at Pensacola, Fort Walton Beach, Tampa, and Hurlburt Field, Florida; Shaw AFB, South Carolina, and Atlanta and Robins AFB, Georgia locations.
Prior to the study, participants were asked whether there were any external emotional circumstances that could have an affect on their stress level during the study. These external factors could include a death in the family, loss of job, unexpected pregnancy, etc. Participants who admitted to experiencing a highly stressful situation at anytime during the study were excluded.
The survey population was approximately 50% male and 50% female. Ethnic origin was not deemed to be a factor since there is no conclusive research in this area that would indicate a significant difference between different ethnic groups. The sample was approximately 62% Caucasian, 20% African-American, 16% Hispanic and 2% “other”.
The instrument utilized to measure the level of stress which individuals experience was the “Biodot”, a one-quarter inch diagonal circle of microencapsulated cholesteric liquid crystals which change color to reflect a broad thermal range. These items were first manufactured by the Medical Device Corporation and are distributed by Biodot International, Inc. of Indianapolis, Indiana. According to the manufacturer, the colors of the Biodots reflect the following temperatures and physiological states
Table 1. Biodot Temperature and Physiological States
|
Color |
Temperature |
Physiological State |
|
Black |
87 |
Very Tense |
|
Amber |
89.6 |
Tense |
|
Yellow |
90.6 |
Unsettled |
|
Green |
91.6 |
Involved |
|
Turquoise |
92.6 |
Relaxed |
|
Blue |
93.6 |
Calm |
|
Violet |
94.6 |
Very Relaxed |
The Biodot colors were assigned numerical values for the purpose of conducting the probability tests. The following colors were assigned the corresponding numerical values in Table 2.
Table 2. Biodot Colors and Numerical Values.
|
Color |
Value |
|
Black |
1 |
|
Amber |
2 |
|
Yellow |
3 |
|
Green |
4 |
|
Turquoise |
5 |
|
Blue |
6 |
|
Violet |
7 |
Prior to recording the numerical data, the Biodots were checked to ensure the colors reflected the temperature range indicated in Table 1. This was accomplished by using a heating element with predetermined temperature settings. Three thermostatic devices were utilized to check the temperature of the element. For further accuracy of the Biodot readings, classroom temperatures were maintained between 70 and 78 degrees.
The researcher placed the Biodots on the back of the hand of each participant, between the thumb and index finger. Individuals, who admitted to a prior medical history of poor circulation, had the Biodots placed on the upper and innermost portion of the forearm. The placement of the Biodots was in accordance with medical information supplied by Biodot International (2001).
Stress levels were recorded 20 minutes after the evaluations were distributed and when the appraisals were completed. A 90-minute maximum time limit was established for the examinations. The individual’s stress level, as reflected by the Biodot color, and with the examination score were the two variables correlated utilizing the Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficient Test (Pearson’s r). This allowed the stress levels experienced during the evaluation to be compared to the examination scores. The results of the Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficient (Pearson’s r) test, found that a statistically significant relationship does not exist, at the .05 level of significance, between the level of stress experienced during an evaluation and the age of the individual.
The null hypothesis, which stated that there would be no significant relationship between stress levels and chronological age, was not rejected. The research hypothesis was not supported. Although studies have shown that as individuals advance in age, there are physiological and psychological differences which occur, the level of stress one experiences during an evaluation is not impacted.
Table 3. Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation of Stress Levels in Relation to Examination Result.
|
Statistic |
Value |
|
Number of pairs scored |
499 |
|
Sum of scores on “X” |
16992 |
|
Sum of scores on “Y” |
1989 |
|
Sum of squared scores on “X” |
734264 |
|
Sum of squared scores on “Y” |
9921 |
|
Sum of “X” and “Y” |
67177 |
|
Pearson’s r |
0.031378 |
|
Degrees of freedom |
497 |
|
Value at .05 |
.09745 |
The results revealed that stress levels experienced during an examination had no significant relationship to the age of the individual.
A replication of this study, utilizing the identical testing situations, but including the results of the evaluations should be conducted to determine if there is a significant difference in the evaluation scores due to the age and the stress level experienced by the individual.
Benson, H. (1975). The relaxation response. New York: William Murrow, p. 158.
Biodot International, Inc. (2001). Teacher’s Guide.
Bittman, B. (1999). Stress begins at an early age: before you might imagine.
Retrieved November 27, 2002 from http://www.mind-body.org/stress%20early%20age.htm
Caple, R. (2001). Biofeedback and Stress Management Clinic. Retrieved October 19,
2002 from http://web.missouri.edu/~councwww/stress/stresswebpage.htm
Gaarder, K. R. & Montgomery, P.S. (1981). Clinical Biofeedback. Procedural Manual
for Behavioral Medicine. Baltimore, London.
Gatchel, R.J., & Price, K.P. (1979). Biofeedback: an introduction and historical
overview. In R.J. Gatchel and K.P. Price (Eds.), Critical Applications of Biofeedback:
Appraisal and Status. New York Pergamon Press.
Jenson, T., Schultz, J., & Schultz, M. (1993). Affects on performance resulting from
stress variations occurring during evaluations. Paper presented at North American
Economic and Finance Association 8th International Congress, Montego Bay, Jamaica,
August 1993.
Kiritz, S., & Moos, R.H. (1974). Physiological Effects of Social Environments.
Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 36. pp. 96-114.
Lifepositive (2002). Symptoms of Anxiety and Stress. Retrieved December, 2002 from
http://lifepositive.com/Mind/psychology/stress/symptoms-of-anxiety.asp
Lowenstein, T. (1995). Stress and Body Temperature. Retrieved December 2, 2002 from
http://www.cliving.org/stress.htm
Mullich, J. (1984). A device for reducing stress? Los Angeles Times, April 3, Part 5.
Mundell, E. (2002). Relax! Aging puts stress in perspective. Retrieved December 2, 2002
from http://www.cliving.org/stress.htm
O’Hair, D. (2002). Retrieved October 19, 2002 from
http://members.cts.com/crash/d/deohair/psychoph.html
Roberts, A.H., Kewman, D.G., & MacDonald, I. (1973). Voluntary control of skin
temperature: unilateral changes using hypnosis and feedback. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, Vol. 82, pp. 63-168.
Sargent, J. D., Green, E. E., & Walters, E.D. (1972). The use of autogenic feedback
training in a pilot study of migraine and tension headaches. Headache, 12,
pp. 120-125.
Schultz, M., Schultz, J. & Williams, (1986). Stress levels experienced by business
students prior to oral presentations and written evaluations. Paper presented at the
Eastern Region Conference of the Association of Human Resources Management and
Organizational Behavior, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Schultz, M., Schultz, J., & Becker, J. (1987). A study of the relationship between
examination scores and the degree of stress exhibited by individuals before, during
and after examinations. Paper presented at the International Atlantic Economic
Conference, Munich, Germany.
Schultz, M., Leptrone, J., & Schultz, J. (1988). Utilizing Biodots to measure stress levels
created by various types of examinations. Paper presented at the International Atlantic
Economic Conference, London, England.
Schultz, M., Schultz, J., & Reilly, T. (1990). Affects on performance resulting from
variations in stress levels occurring during evaluations. Journal of the Southwestern
Society of Economists, Vol 17, No. 1, 73-77.
Schultz, J. & Schultz, M. (2002). The use of microencapsulated cholesteric material as a
biofeedback mechanism to Measure the Relationship between Stress Levels and
Performance. Published in the proceedings for the 2002 Hawaii International Conference on Business, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Schwartz, M.S. (1999). Biofeedback: a practitioner’s guide (2nd edition,: Guilford Press..
Singer, M.T. (1974). Engagement-involvement: A Central Phenomenon in
Psychophysiological Research. Psychosm. Med. 36: 1-17.
Wolley, L. (2000) Stress Today. Retrieved October 19, 2002 from
http://www.elementsofhealth.org/stresstoday.htm