CHANOYU: RITUALS AND SYMBOLISM:
JAPAN TEA CEREMONY

The ritual drinking of tea was introduced into Japan by Buddhist monks from China whose custom it had been for centuries (Hoover, 1977). According to Hoover, the practice began in honor of Bodhidharma (ca. 460-534), the founder of Zen Buddhism, who left India for China in 5200. The legend states that after a nine-year period of meditation, Bodhidharma, overcome by drowsiness, tore off his eyelids in anger. Tea bushes sprang up on the spot he is believed to have thrown them. Tanaka and Tanaka (1998), however, trace the ritual of sharing a cup of tea to samurai warriors, who were reputed to have strong family ties. "The lord would take the first sip of sake from a large bowl and pass it among his guests as a reaffirmation of their close ties"(p. 31). Whatever its origin, the result is that the ritual of shared tea as practiced in chanoyu, today occupies a prominent position in Japanese society. Hoover (1977) and Hammitzsch(1993) identify several phases of tea use in Japan: its introduction from China; the institution of tea parties and tea competitions; the growth of the tea way, chado; the development, decline, and rebirth of chado; the perfection of the tea way; and the dominance of chanoyu in Japanese society.

A way is a tradition through which skills are acquired and passed down (Hoover, 1977). Ways serve as educational tools, as well as provide cultural and intellectual guidance for their practitioners (Hammitzsch, 1993; Hoover, 1977; Soshitsu, 1998). Each of the Japanese arts possesses its own way (Hammitzsch, 1993) including the way of flowers, of painting, of fencing, poetry, and self-defense. The significance of Japanese ways has been widely documented (Dumolin, 1976; Hammitzsch, 1993; Hoover, 1977; Soshitsu , 1998). Chanoyu, the Japanese tea ceremony, is the means by which the principles of the tea way are manifested. Chanoyu is an expression of Zen Buddhism, and its formalities are derived from the simple and practical manners of the Buddhist monks' daily activities in monasteries (Ito,1998). Over the centuries the aristocracy, warriors, businessmen, and commoners alike have all been attracted to Chanoyu. What they all have in common is their training by Zen monks. The close relationship between Zen philosophy and the tea ceremony is evident to this day, a relationship that is summarized by the popular Japanese expression "chazen ichimi" (Zen and tea are one)(Hoover, 1977; Ito, 1998). Through the influence of warriors, who were accustomed to strict discipline, chanoyu acquired its rigid set of rules (Hammitzsch, 1993; Hoover, 1977; Mooney, 1996). The nobility introduced into chanoyu a taste for fine Sung ceramics and Sung theories of art (Hoover, 1977; Ito, 1998; Soshitsu, 1998). Borrowing from the customs of the Chinese Sung courts the nobility organized tea parties that reflected their refined tastes. Two parallel schools thus developed around the ceremonial drinking of tea: refined entertainment and a religious ritual, both of which eventually merged into a single gathering, chanoyu (Soshitsu XV, 1998; Varley and Isao, 1989).

Hoover (1977) and Soshitsu (1998) also discuss the contributions of several prominent tea masters to the development of chanoyu. These include Ei-Sai (1141-1215), Noami(1397-1421), Mokichi Shoku(1423-1502), Murato Jaku, under whose guidance the tea way was born, Takeno Joo(1502-1555), who engineered the maturation of chanoyu, and Rikyu(1521-1591), who formalized the classic rules under which chanoyu is still practiced today. From Zen traditions Rikyu established the four guiding principles of Chanoyu : wa( harmony), kei( respect), sei( purity), and jaku( tranquility). These constitute the standard of life of those who practice chanoyu and are represented at various stages in the ceremony. Through the influence of the great tea masters, the elements of sabi and wabi became integral to the tea way. Sabi grew out of the Heian (794-1185) period's "admiration for lovely things on the verge of extinction "(Hoover, 1977,p.182) and for old objects that "have the quiet, peaceful air that exudes tranquility, dignity, and character"(ibid). This idea, according to Hoover, "was perfectly at home in the tea ceremony, where even the utensils were deliberately chosen for their weathered look"(ibid). Hammitzsch(1993), sees sabi as being "characterized by the absence of obvious beauty", implying not only the beauty of experience and insight that comes with age, but also the beauty that comes with " tranquility, aloneness, and deep solitude"(p. 46). Sabi, can still suggest snobbery however, if old but expensive artifacts or utensils are used in the ceremony. To counter this potential patrician "threat" Rikyu introduced the concept of wabi ,which encourages "deliberate restraint"(p.183) in permitting no displays of wealth or ostentation. This idea is convened in the rustic look of the teahouse, the simple flower display, and the unpretentious utensils, which collectively embody the traditional Zen distaste for materialism.

Tea ceremonies are held at all seasons , at different times of day or night, and as part of many other celebrations. The ceremonial character of chanoyu, therefore, varies from one tea gathering to the next. Participants come from all professions and all social classes( Ito, 1998; Soshitsu, 1970). Today Japanese women are more active in chado than men. Anderson (1991) attributes this trend to a combination of factors that have given women in Japan more leisure time to pursue personal interests, including chanoyu.

When guests arrive for a tea ceremony they typically wait in a garden shed called the machiai. Here they observe a ceremonial silence, which continues on the walk through the tea garden and into the teahouse. This is a time for guests to collect their thoughts and prepare themselves for the ceremony to come. Anderson (1991) identifies the host, the teishu, as the intermediary between the everyday world and the ritualistic world of chanoyu. Consequently the first time guests see the host is in the inner garden when he or she brings water to the basin at which they will rinse their mouths and wash their hands. This is a purification rite symbolizing the washing away of the dirt of the outside world and becoming free to enter the world of the ritualistic tea ceremony (Anderson, 1991). Anderson notes that the host could be seen as a medium of purification since he or she provided the means of purification, the water, a role that is confirmed when the host opens the gate between the inner and the outer roji, "symbolically clearing the way for spiritual communion and potential enlightenment"(p. 154). The tea garden, roji( dewy path), is not elaborately decorated (Anderson, 1991;Hoover, 1977)but according to Anderson "it is loaded with symbolism"(p. 155). The few well-placed pine trees represent longevity, and bamboo trees represent strength and resilience (Anderson, 1991). A grouping of three stones represents the presence of three Buddhas and if the stones have been arranged vertically they represent a waterfall (Anderson, 1991). The roji is angled suggesting that "the path to enlightenment is not straight"(p.155). The chirriana, a dirt pit frequently seen in a tea garden, is used by the host for leaves and broken twigs collected while cleaning the garden and "functions as a symbolic receptacle for the dust of temporal existence" (Anderson, 1991 p. 156). The walk through the garden is another purification rite intended to transform guests from everyday people to ritualistic individuals (Anderson, 1991).

The teahouse, chashitsu, is a small hut constructed with natural materials such as bamboo, wood, mud, reeds, and straw, which, according to Anderson (1991), symbolize the temporary nature of life. The most unusual feature of the teahouse is its small entrance. Through this hole guests enter the tearoom on their knees " a psychological design feature intended to ensure that all worldly dignity is left outside. Only the humble can enter since each [guest] must kneel in the presence of others present"(Hoover, 1977, p. 177). Next to this entrance is a sword rack, the katanakake, which is believed to have been designed by Rikyu to encourage Samurai warriors to leave behind the symbols of their status, their swords, before entering the tearoom (Anderson, 1991). The rituals associated with chanoyu continue once the guests are inside the tearoom, which, although modestly decorated is rich with symbolism. Upon entering the tearoom guests approach the tokonoma, an alcove where artifacts are displayed. One such artifact is a scroll, which Anderson (1991) and Tanaka and Tanaka(1998) give the distinction of being the highest-ranking object in the tearoom. There are two types of hanging scrolls: calligraphy and painting. Scroll writings include poems, teachings of Buddhist monks, and teachings of famous tea masters. Even the names of or thank-you notes from famous tea masters can be found on scrolls (Anderson, 1991; Tanaka and Tanaka, 1998). Paintings, usually of birds, flowers, or landscapes, were formerly of Chinese origin; today they are typically works by Japanese masters (Tanaka and Tanaka, 1998). Whether a calligraphy or a painting the scrolls represent the spirit of their creators, and tea practitioners bow to them" because such works symbolize the presence of the author, his values, teachings, and often his contribution to chado"(Anderson, 1991 p.159). By its transient nature calligraphy presents only one chance to produce perfection, a feature well suited to the tea ceremony whose practitioners are taught to regard each tea ritual as unique (Anderson, 1991).

Kaiseki is a formal tea ceremony at which dinner is served. Simpler than regular Japanese ceremonial meals, the kaiseki meal has nonetheless been described as "the flower of Japanese cuisine" (Anderson,1991 p.169) and its origins can be traced to monks at Buddhist temples, who were supposed to have learned self-discipline and humility from these simple meals (Anderson,1991). To this day, keiseki meals are inexpensive, the ingredients are seasonal, and portions are small. Typically the meal consists of three dishes and a bowl of soup, seasoned saltwater and brown rice crust. The rest of the meal consists of fish, some boiled foods, and rice, which is usually served in the shape of the Japanese character for "one" to symbolize the supremacy of rice among foods (Anderson, 1991). Rice wine, sake, is served after the meal.

At this point the host repairs the fire whose five elements represent the Taoist material world: metal (the kettle), wood (the charcoal), earth (the clay brazier), fire, and water (Anderson, 1991). The smell of incense, "the scent of Buddha's paradise" (Anderson, 1991,p.180) permeates the room. Finally, the serving of sweets signals the end of the kaiseki. The host bows and withdraws, and the guests file out of the tearoom into the waiting area in the same order in which they entered (Anderson, 1991 ;Hoover, 1977). This interval is called the nakadachi, and during this break the guests may talk among themselves. The host is making preparations for the rest of the ceremony, and guests have the opportunity to purify themselves again before returning to the tearoom. When the guests return they see that flowers have replaced the scroll on the takonoma. The flower display, known as chabana, is different from ikebana,, the traditional Japanese art of flower arrangement. The flowers used in a tea ceremony are not arranged rather are placed "as they would appear in nature" (Tanaka and Tanaka, 1998, p.181). They are seasonal and are preferably picked by the host for their own beauty. They are used only for the duration of the ceremony, about an hour, after which they are discarded to symbolize the transitory nature of life (Anderson, 1991; Tanaka and Tanaka, 1998).

At this stage of the ceremony, the haiken, the guests examine the water container, mizusashi, and the thick tea container, the chaire. The host now appears with the tea bowl, the chawan, which contains the tea whisk, the chasen. Plain bamboo chasen are preferred and are considered indispensable to the tea ritual (Anderson, 1991). Their proportion, size, and the color of thread that runs through them vary. Especially important is the color of the bamboo since it symbolizes the practitioners' tea school allegiance. The tea scoop, the chashsku, is a higher-ranking utensil. Its symbolic value is its name, which expresses the theme of the tea gathering. Ideally it is made by a tea practitioner and not by a nameless artisan as is the chasen (Anderson, 1991). Tea scoops embody the essence of their creators as well as serve as inspirations to tea practitioners. Special tea scoops are kept in individual bamboo tubes that are signed by their makers and subsequent owners (Anderson, 1991, P.189). Also at hand are linen cloths, chakin, which will be used later for wiping the tea bowl. The tea utensils are collectively called chadogu, and they have been "meticulously selected for their special aesthetic qualities" (Hoover, 1977, p.179). The guests are now served tiny tea sweets, higashi, in preparation for the bitter tea.

With all the utensils within reach, the host prepares the green tea using slow, deliberate movements as precise as dance steps. Hoover (1977) describes the host's movements as "a seated dance, an orchestrated ritual, as deliberate, paced, and as formal as the elevation of the Catholic Mass" (p.179). The host varies the pace of his or her movements ensuring that they are neither too fast nor too slow. As suggested by Tanaka and Tanaka, 1998), "a good host is one who can hold the interest of his [her] guests for the duration of the ceremony. At the end, the guest should come away feeling satisfied with both the excellent tea and the beauty and tranquility of the performance"(p.136).

The host now rinses the tea bowl with hot water from the kettle and wipes it with a napkin, it with a napkin, a symbolic purification rite. Powdered tea is transferred from the caddy to the tea bowl and boiling water is then added to the powder. The mixture is stirred with the bamboo whisk to produce a green beverage (Hoover, 1977; Mooney, 1996). All the guests watch the host's performance with admiration. The guest of honor, the shokyaku, who is first in line, is served first. The host bows to the guest of honor who bows back as he or she receives the bowl. The guest of honor rotates the bowl slightly before taking the first sip as a sign of respect to the host (Anderson, 1991; Hammitzsch, 1993; Mooney, 1996). After about four sips (Mooney, 1996), the guest of honor wipes the rim of the bowl and then passes it to the next guest with a bow (Anderson, 1991; Mooney, 1996). This ritual is repeated until all the guests have had their turn with the tea bowl; the bowl is then cleansed again and a second cup of tea is prepared, typically a thinner blend known as usucha (Anderson, 1991; Hammitzsch,1993). This signifies the end of the formal part of the tea ceremony. The host does not taste the tea (Anderson, 1991). During a long tea ceremony the charcoal may be re-arranged between the serving of thick and thin tea (Anderson, 1991; Hammitzsch,1993 ). At some tea ceremonies, only thin tea is served (Anderson,1991).

Guests can now comment on the host's good tastes: praise the tea, its strength, texture, taste, color, and compliment the host on the choice of flowers and how they were displayed. Zen philosophy typically will be included in the discussion. So are observations about great tea masters and their achievements, calligraphy, painters, poetry appropriate to the season, and the tastes of different periods in Japanese history, especially as they pertain to the tea ceremony (Anderson, 1991; Hoover, 1977; Ito, 1998). At some point the guest of honor asks the host's permission to examine the tea utensils in detail. Each guest spreads his or her fukusa, which the host has provided and on which each utensil rests while it is being examined. After a utensil is examined, it is passed to the next guest in line until they have all had their turns. All utensils used in the preparation of the ritual tea are examined, including the incense holder, the tea whisk, containers holding the tea powder, the water dipper, and the tea bowl, which is the focus of the conversation, the "piece de resistance" (Hoover, 1977,p.79). As each guest picks it up, he or she supports it with the right hand while rotating it slightly with the left. According to Anderson (1991), the tea bowl represents intimacy because it touches the lips, and since all the guests share it, it also represents communication.

Any mention of the outside world is prohibited in the tearoom. "Beauty has been appreciated, values have been subtly guided into perspective, and spirits purified" (Hoover, 1977,p.181). Each guest is now at one with himself or herself, the utensils, and the seasons in a peaceful atmosphere devoid of worldly distractions (Anderson, 1991; Mooney, 1996; Soshitsu, 1998).

The four basic principles of chado, the way of tea (wa, kei, sei, and jaku), are skillfully symbolized in the rituals of the ceremony. The Japanese ideogram wa is based on the Chinese ideogram ho. According to Anderson (1991), ho was first used by Taoists to represent "universal harmony" (p.213) The Chinese later used it as a symbol for Japan itself and the term came to be associated with things of Japanese origin and the "Japanese personality symbolized by teaists' soft, tender, conciliatory spirit " (p.215). Several aspects of the tea ceremony reflect harmony: the perfect blending of the three faces of Zen: physical art forms (architecture, the art of flower arrangement, painting, calligraphy, and ceramic art); the tranquillity of the peaceful atmosphere and the aesthetics, of the simple but elegant tea garden, the tearoom, and the fine utensils. The ritual cleverly engages and blends all five senses into a harmonious whole. Suzuki (1959) states that "the organs of hearing, smell, and sight are engaged even before the ceremony begins" (p. 299), while the guests are still in the tea garden; the smell of pine and incense, the captivating layout of the simple garden, and the simulated waterfall are blended to arouse in guests a state of mind conducive to what the tea ceremony attempts to capture. The boiling kettle, the smell of the tatami, the burning incense, and the simple elegance of the tearoom continue to engage the senses of sight, smell, and hearing once the guests have entered the tearoom. Taste and touch are involved when guests participate in the meal, have sweets, share the ceremonial cup of tea, and examine the utensils. Anderson (1991) states further that "combinations of utensils representing the Taoist five elements, drawing the triagram for water in the ash under the charcoal, the geomantic orientation of the tearoom, tea's special status as a 'spiritual medicine', and even the aim of creating a mystic harmony between host and guest may be attributed to a desire for wa" (p.215).

Kei, according to Anderson, is a Confucian ethic. Not only are the utensils used in the tea ceremony selected for their aesthetic beauty, they are meant to be treated with respect and reverence. Mooney (1996) reports that students who are engaged in or who are learning the ceremony's teachings and rituals are encouraged to "treat the tea utensils with respect, as objects of beauty and utility" (p.2); respect in this sense is not merely a superficial attitude but "a heartfelt sentiment that synthesizes important elements of reserve, reverence, and restraint" (Anderson, 1991,p.215). We observe this kind of respect in the relationship between guests and hosts: the exchanged bows, the praising of the host for his or her superb taste, and the delicate manner in which the utensils are handled. Rotating the tea bowl slightly before taking the first sip is also a sign of respect for the host (Anderson, 1991; Mooney, 1996). The guests' respect for the tea utensils and other physical objects is also noteworthy; their bows and courtesy toward each other symbolize mutual respect.

The tea ceremony is laden with ritual purification: washing of the hands and rinsing of the mouth at the inner roji; sprinkling the roji with water; fresh flower buds that are typically discarded after the ceremony; the ritual cleansing of the tea bowl with hot water and wiping it immediately before preparing the tea; and wiping the rim of the tea bowl with a napkin before passing it on to other guests. The world of the tea ceremony, where reference to the outside world is taboo, symbolizes tranquillity. The ritualistic silence, the leisurely pace of the walk through the tea garden, the deliberate, slow pace of the kaiseki meal, the ceremonial preparation and drinking of tea, the demeanor and gestures of the host in particular and the guests in general, and the ambiance of the tearoom are aspects of the ceremony that vividly capture the essence of tranquillity. Hoover (1977) believes that in a troubled world tranquillity has found its "finest expression in Chanoyu, which demonstrates as no sermon ever could the Zen approach to life" (p.181).

Conclusion

Chanoyu enjoys a prominence unequaled by any other aspect of Japanese culture. The ceremony has its origins in the simple, everyday behavior of Zen monks, and Zen philosophy continues to dominate the ceremony. The ritual drinking of tea in Japan went through several well-marked phases, each accompanied by changes that gave the ceremony its distinctive Japanese character. Today chanoyu is popular and is practiced by Japanese of diverse social classes. The way of tea, chado, is a popular sociological area among Japanese university faculty, and tea schools are located everywhere in the country. In addition, chanoyu affects many areas of traditional and modern Japanese culture, including pottery and ceramics, calligraphy, cuisine, flower arrangement, dance, drama, meditation, and poetry, thereby providing an avenue for intellectual and personal development. Beginning at the roji and continuing throughout the ceremony, chanoyu is an exercise in symbolism. The symbols are linked to ritualistic behavior and to the physical aspects of the ceremony, including the garden, the teahouse, tearoom, and utensils. The four guiding principles of chanoyu wa, kei, sei, and jaku are symbolically represented throughout the ceremony in a skillful blending of aesthetics and spiritual/ritualistic behavior.

CHABANA: The way of displaying flowers in a tea ceremony

CHADO: "The Way of Tea" the spiritual path of chanoyu

CHADOGU: Tea utensils

CHAIRE: A ceramic caddy for green tea

CHAJIN: Teaist; ideals of the tea way permeate his or her daily life

CHAKIN: A narrow white cloth, used for wiping the tea bowl

CHANOYU: The tea ceremony

CHASEN: Tea whisk (a brush made of bamboo)

CHASHAKU: Tea scoop, usually made of bamboo

CHASHITSU: Teahouse

CHAZEN ICHIMI: [Zen and Tea are one] (a traditional Japanese expression)

CHIRRIANA : a dirt pit

FUKUSA A small piece of silk cloth on which tea utensils sit while being examined

HIGASHI Small sweets customarily served before bitter thin tea

HAIKEN Part of the tea ceremony during which utensils are examined/handled

HISHAKU Water dipper; a ladle made of bamboo

HONTO: Host's assistant

IKEBANA: The art of flower arrangement

JAKU: Tranquillity, one of the four principles of Chado

KAISEKI: Formal tea ceremony during which dinner is also served

KAMA Kettle used in the tea ceremony to boil water

KASHI The general category of Japanese sweets

KEI: Purity, one of the four principles of Chado

KISHAKU: Water dipper

KOBOSHI: Container for used water

KOICHA: Thick (green) tea

MACHIAI: Waiting area where guests wait before entering the tea garden

MIZUSASHI: A water jar

MIZUYA Area where preparations to make tea take place

MOCHI: Cake made of steamed rice

NAKADACHI: A break taken between the kaiseki meal and the preparation of tea

NIRIGUCHI: The entrance through which guests crawl to enter the tearoom

OSHIKI: Food tray

RENGA: Art of linked verse

RINJI: A spontaneous tea gathering or one held at short notice

ROJI: A passage linking the waiting area and the tea garden

SAKE: Rice wine

SEI : Respect, one of the principles of chado

SHOKYAKU: The guest of honor or main guest

SHOSOKU: Letters written by famous tea masters, which may be mounted and hung in the tearoom

TEISHU: Host at a tea ceremony

TOKONOMO: An alcove where flowers, a scroll or other simple decorative objects may be displayed

USUCHA: Thin tea

WA: Harmony, one of the four guiding principles of Chado

YABUNOCHI: Tea school

ZENKI: Act of notifying the host of one's intention to attend a tea ceremony

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