Several cooperative learning strategies are described that the authors have used in teaching at the graduate level. The strategies are based on principles of adult learning theory and cooperative learning and have been evaluated by students as valuable learning experiences. Two strategies, a symposium presentation and prevention program, are described in term of design, structure, outcome and evaluation. Additional strategies described include professional dialog groups, a leadership course, team interviews, and product development.

In teaching graduate students in two professional master's programs in education, Leadership in Educational Administration and Human Development Counseling, it has been the authors' experience that cooperative learning approaches are particularly suited to graduate students. In both programs, students are embarking on careers in which their ability to successfully interact with a variety of people is essential. As school principals, students with the master's degree in Leadership in Educational Administration need skills in organizational leadership, effective personnel practices, and community building in many different settings. As school and agency counselors, students with the master's degree in Human Development Counseling work with organizations, individuals, groups, families, and the larger community in promoting mental health. Cooperative learning approaches at the graduate level accomplish the goals described by Natasi and Clements (1991) such as "enhanced academic achievement and cognitive growth, motivation and positive attitudes toward learning, social competence, and interpersonal relations" (p.111). In addition, at the graduate level, cooperative learning approaches can provide "real life" experiential learning depending on the nature of the project.

The authors believe in the power of a "connected class." Describing a connected class as providing a culture for growth, Belenky, Clinchy, Golberger and Tarule (1986) explain that "the connected teacher tries to create groups in which members can nurture each other's thoughts to maturity" (p. 221). The cooperative learning projects presented use strategies that are interactive and facilitate connected knowing. "Connected knowing builds on the subjectivists' conviction that the most trustworthy knowledge comes from personal experience rather than pronouncements of authorities. . .Connected knowers develop procedures for gaining access to other people's knowledge" (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger & Tarule, 1986, pp. 112-113).

Presented are the design, structure, outcome, and evaluation of cooperative learning projects that graduate students have evaluated in these words: "I have been deeply moved by what I have learned and experienced"; this was "the best learning experience I have had so far in my academic career"; and "This course marks the beginning of a new phase in my life." The projects and strategies described in depth include a symposium presentation and a prevention program. Additional strategies are described including a professional dialogue group, team interviewing, development of a counseling assessment and research tool, and an entire leadership course based on cooperative learning. Although the approaches have been used in classes specific to the fields of counseling and educational leadership, the authors believe in their adaptability to other graduate programs because these teaching strategies address the needs and motivation of adult learners.

Successful teaching of graduate students requires an understanding of adult learning. Extrinsic motivation to learn as an adult may include the opportunity for a promotion, entry to a new career, more money, or simply a need to keep up with change (Rogers, 1989). Intrinsic motivation varies from student to student. Whatever the motivation, graduate students respond to teaching that actively involves them in a learning process, allows for choice and working at their own pace, is directed toward relevant or practical skills and knowledge, and makes use of their experience (Rogers, 1989). Active learning strategies, which form the basis of cooperative learning projects, have been shown to increase student motivation, especially for graduate students (Bonwell & Eison, 1995).

Cooperative group learning projects are particularly suited to graduate students. The problem-centered orientation to learning characteristic of adults was identified by Knowles (1984) as one of the most basic characteristics of adult learning. Some tension is always likely to be present when adults are learning, even those who have voluntarily undertaken earning a graduate degree. Cooperative learning projects designed around response to a social issue, for example, are problem-centered and provide support through the group format that relieves much tension and anxiety if appropriately structured. Cooperative learning methods, in general, share characteristics that contribute to the learning of adult students. While working in cooperative groups, students use cooperative, pro-social behavior to accomplish learning tasks or projects. Projects and activities are structured so that students are positively interdependent as well as individually accountable for their learning (Millis & Cottell, 1995). According to Knowles (1970), there are four important, crucial distinctions between adult and child learners:

These assumptions are that, as a person matures, (1) his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directing human being, (2) he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that become an increasing resource for learning, (3) his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles, and (4) his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject centeredness to one of problem centeredness. (p. 39)

Successful teaching and learning for graduate students involves organizing learning experiences that take into account these characteristics of adults. Links between what we know about adult learning and cooperative learning led the authors to develop the variety of cooperative learning strategies described in this paper.

For the college graduate core course titled "Legal and Social Change," the author adapted for graduate students the group investigation model developed by Thelen (Joyce & Weil, 1986). The course is required for students earning the master's degree in school and agency counseling, school and agency administration, and curriculum and instruction. The course description is as follows: "Analysis of effects of legal and social change on the lives of young people and on the work of educators and other helping professionals." Course goals are: (a) to stimulate reflection on aspects of life in our culture that limit both freedom and the full development of human potential, (b) to consider creative responses to these limitations, and (c) to examine one's own personal commitment to valuing of diversity, dignity, dialogue, and democracy. The course meets weekly for two and one-half hour sessions and typically involves 20 to 25 students.

Design

This adaptation of the group investigation model requires groups of from four to six students to confront a social issue and report on the results of their investigation in a Symposium, a 90 minute workshop style presentation. Symposium presentations are given during the last month of class. A Symposium is defined as "a conference or meeting for the discussion of some subject, especially an academic topic or social problem" (Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus, 1987). Students become experts on social issues and work through the processes of: (a) selecting and refining a topic, (b) formulating an investigation process, (c) completing additional research and developing the workshop, (d) and presenting the Symposium. Topics are investigated both nationally and in terms of the local area.

Structure

Symposium group members use some class time, approximately an hour from each of several class periods, to plan and develop the Symposium presentation. Groups of from four to six persons are created by the instructor to give students the experience of working with diversity. The first phase of the project, selecting and refining a topic, can be structured in several ways. Sometimes the topics have been predetermined and are simply broad categories such as changing families, welfare, poverty, or racism, for example. When this approach is used, students' topic preferences are taken into account in making group assignments. Other times students are put into diverse groups and then challenged to develop a topic of interest to all. An example of a Symposium generated from this approach focused on day care and welfare changes. Another variation has been to assign students to groups by age diversity and to give each group a different decade to investigate, beginning with the 1950s. Subtopics for the decade group investigations are the same for each group and identified by the instructor. Each week a new decade is presented and as the weeks unfold, students develop a better historical understanding of social issues such as poverty, housing, racism, violence, and gender and lifestyle issues. Whatever the topic focus, each student is expected through reading and research to become well informed about his or her Symposium topic generally, as well as about the sub-topic specifically. Once the topics have been decided students are guided in refining the topics through a series of questions. By the end of the first in-class planning session sub-topics for individual research typically have been identified by each of the groups and selected by individuals.

Outcome

One memorable Symposium was titled "Living with Urban Poverty." The introduction focused the presentation with this statement: "Our group's enlightenment to the poverty that engulfs our society as a whole has deepened our awareness of the complex avenues that lead to the inequities that our society possesses. As a group we want to allow others to gain experience and education. Perhaps we will even shock some with the information we have learned about urban poverty. With no food, no bed, no money, clothes or family, circumstances beyond one's control, where would we go?" Also included in the introduction was an opening video created by group members featuring scenes of poverty in Peoria. The video was well done, included interaction with some of the subjects being filmed, and was thought-provoking. Individual subtopics were the following, with information conveyed through individual presentations: Pregnant Teens: One Minute of Par-A-Dice, Poor Children's Education, Welfare Legislation, and Gangs in Peoria. The group activity was a roulette game called "Resources vs. Problems" that simulated the consequences of poverty for the life chances of those living in poverty. The game was designed to show how those with more resources get better educational opportunities and typically more wealthy, while poverty breeds poverty. Students moved around the room to different dealers, experiencing the consequences of their assigned roles and the cards they were dealt. The presentation concluded with excerpts from a commercial video called "Life's Little Instruction Book." In a reflection about memorable concepts from presentations other than your own, one student wrote the following: "The concept that when you start with nothing it is very hard to gain was a very powerful message in the poverty symposium. The card game really made you aware of this by not giving you the resources needed when you were poverty-stricken. After that activity, I can understand why so many people feel hopeless. . . I felt this activity really gave you a feeling of what it would be like to have your cards dealt against you."

Evaluation of the Symposium project has three basic components. When the Symposium project is introduced students receive a copy of the Feedback Form that the instructor will use in assessing each presentation. A total of 30 points are possible and each student in the group receives the same grade. The form includes the following criteria and point specifications: (a) introduction that focuses the topic and gets attention (3 points), (b) clear presentation of information (12 points), (c) creative participatory learning experience (3 points), (d) clear and memorable summary/conclusion (2 points), (e) creativity in how the investigation was carried out and in the presentation (5 points), (f) well organized and helpful handouts (3 points), and (g) Time/Activity logs that demonstrate investment of individual time and energy (2 points). The instructor awards points and provides comments on each component, making copies of the completed feedback form for each group member. A second component of the evaluation involves the individual Time/Activity logs for the Symposium project. These individual Time/Activity logs are due the night of the presentation and are considered by the instructor when calculating each student's class participation grade. Logs are not graded as such but influence whether the student earns the full credit available for class participation. Finally, each student in a Symposium group evaluates the other group members. Group members develop their own criteria and award each other from one to five points. These assessments are due the night of the presentation and also become part of each student's class participation grade.

Students' evaluative comments about presenting the "Living With Urban Poverty" Symposium included, "My work with the group helped me understand the desperateness of poverty. Several issues we as a group agreed upon, but other issues brought about some intense debate, which helped me to look at more than my own view of a given situation." Another student wrote, "As we discussed our individual topics and learned information from one another, we were culturally more aware. Our discussions on how to create our symposium brought more information into our world." These comments illustrate that connected knowing works. The most recent evaluation of the Legal and Social Change class was completed by 28 persons, with a mean for the 10 items of 4.8 on a 5.00 scale. This mean suggests that students find the course a valuable learning experience.

In "Community Counseling", a required course for Human Development Counseling, the goals for the course include providing students with the skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary for effective community counseling. A cooperative learning project such as the development and implementation of a prevention program fulfills this goal in several ways: (a) students learn how to work cooperatively as a team to plan, develop, and implement a program much in the same way they will when working for a community agency; (b) students acquire first hand knowledge of community resources available and how to access those resources; and (c) students learn the process for developing community/agency based prevention programs from the initial stage of assessment to the final evaluation.

Design

The overall design of the cooperative project encompassed four phases: assessment of the needs of the target population, development of prevention activities to meet those needs, presentation of the program, and evaluation of the total program and component parts. Students worked in cooperative groups through each phase of the design. Since there were twenty students, four groups of five were used. During class time work, group members were assigned roles such as reporter, recorder, time-keeper, and facilitator to assist with the group process. Work outside of class was structured as the students desired. At the end of one phase, students have the option to work with a different group. During the assessment phase each group was assigned separate areas to research to avoid overlap in information gathering. For example, one group was assigned to research the Internet and current literature while another was to interview professionals in the field. After completing the research, each group presented their information to the entire class.

With the necessary background information shared, groups moved to the next phase, that of designing prevention activities based on the research. The initial task of developing goals was accomplished by each group sharing their ideas and final goals were then developed by consensus of the whole class. Each group was then assigned a goal from which to brainstorm ideas for activities that would accomplish the goal. When the activities were formulated and agreed upon, students were provided with the opportunity to decide with which activity they wanted to work.

After developing a detailed plan for the activity, along with resources needed and an evaluation component, the total program was developed from the activities of the five groups. The program was implemented by the students with clients from a cooperating community agency. Clients and professional staff provided evaluative information for further development of the prevention program. At the end of the project, students evaluated themselves, their peers, and the program.

Prior to the semester's start, the course instructor arranged for the prevention program to be developed in collaboration with a local community counseling agency. The director of a program serving homeless youth agreed to assist with access to information and clients. A prevention program on preventing HIV/AIDS was agreed upon due to the high risk of homeless youth to contract HIV/AIDS. A small grant for materials and resources was obtained from the university. Student groups obtained information about HIV/AIDS and homeless youth from investigating current literature, the Internet, interviewing professionals who provide services for homeless youth, and by interviewing former homeless youth program clients. Based on this research they developed the following goals for the prevention program which was now entitled All Individuals Deserve Support (AIDS): (a) to educate Homeless Youth Case Managers in HIV/AIDS prevention information and methods for the purpose of ongoing education and support of their clients; (b) to incorporate homeless youth into program development and implementation; (c) to provide client specific information materials; and (d) to integrate the program into existing services as appropriate.

The activities designed to meet these goals included developing a resource library consisting of client-appropriate brochures, pamphlets, videos, books and other materials organized for accessibility and housed in the offices of the homeless youth program; an in service training program for the case managers who provide direct service and support to the homeless youth addressing current information about AIDS/HIV and its transmission and how to talk to clients about prevention; a three-part psycho educational group for clients focused on developing self-esteem and assertiveness; and development of a peer helper program where homeless youth who had successfully completed the program would assist those still struggling with homelessness and related concerns. The first activity, designed to serve as an 'attention-grabber" was a pizza dinner and talk with a person living with AIDS. The speaker, close in age to the audience, told her story and answered questions. The other activities were scheduled following this initial program.

Evaluation for grading purposes consisted of an activity log and a portfolio completed by each student as well as an evaluation of the student by his or her group members. The activity log was a listing and description of all activities related to the project and the time involved. The portfolio included all materials found and developed as a part of the project. At the initial group meeting, students were assigned the task of developing a method for evaluating the contribution of each group member. Groups developed the criteria for evaluation based on their expectations of themselves and each other in the group process. The instructor assigned a grade for participation based on the group evaluation and the activity log for individuals and a single group grade for the group's performance in the program.

At the end of the semester, students complete a course evaluation designed to assess the instructor's teaching and the students' satisfaction with their learning. The opportunity for written comments concerning the course under "teaching activities" provided the basis for the evaluation of the student's learning associated with the cooperative project. The most recent evaluation of the Community Counseling class was completed by 21 people with a mean for the 10 items of 4.75 on a 5.00 scale. Student comments regarding the prevention project included, "I've learned more from this project and the people I worked with than any other so far" and "This was an excellent learning opportunity, working with real clients was so much more satisfying and assisted in my understanding of what I will face after graduation." Overall, quantitative and qualitative evaluations by students suggest that they find this a valuable learning experience on many different levels.

In addition to the cooperative learning projects described in depth, the authors have developed and/or adapted other cooperative strategies for graduate student learning that address the learning needs of adults. These strategies include Professional Dialog Groups, Team Interviews, Instrument or Product Development, and a Leadership Course.

Professional Dialog Group

Professional Dialog Groups were created in the context of a course titled "Supervision and Evaluation of Instruction." Glatthorn's (1990) model of differentiated supervision features three components: Clinical Supervision, Self-directed Supervision, and Cooperative Professional Development. Students experienced one type of cooperative professional development, a dialog group, as part of the course requirements. According to Glatthorn (1990), "Professional dialog occurs when small groups of teachers meet regularly for guided discussion of their own teaching as it related to current developments in education. The objective is to facilitate reflection about practice, helping teachers become more thoughtful decision-makers" (p. 189). Members of a professional dialog group meet regularly, select a topic of mutual interest to explore, and rotate leadership and sharing of resources with each other. Sessions each have three phases: focus on sharing by the designated leader of external knowledge about a topic, discussion centering on personal knowledge related to the topic, and exploration of the implications of the whole discussion for each individual's teaching. Students were divided into dialog groups based upon similarities of their teaching assignments. At the end of the experience, as prospective administrators, they evaluated professional dialog in terms of how they might use this approach to professional development when they become administrators responsible for supervision of instruction. In commenting about the method of instruction on the course evaluation, one student wrote that "practicing the Glatthorn model was wonderful."

Team Interviews

Team Interviews were initially developed as a method for obtaining information about the management styles and behavior in local organizations for a course titled "Interpersonal and Organizational Behavior." Students pair up and develop interview questions to ask of managers in local organizations of interest such as counseling agencies and schools. Interview questions are developed based on principles of organizational and interpersonal development discussed in class and through readings such as Stephen Covey's (1989) The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. Students must present the information gathered in the interview(s) in a creative way to the rest of the class that illustrates their learning about the organization and management within the organization. Interview presentations from such diverse organizations as a car dealership, professional baseball team, factories, schools, and a local bar catering to college students transform concepts and information from readings and in-class experiences into representations of how these concepts are actualized in real organizations. Students evaluate this experience as an interesting, fun and useful activity to illustrate concepts learned in class.

Women in Leadership Course

Additionally, an entire 3 credit hour course on Women and Leadership has been structured according to Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule's (1986) principles of connected knowing. The course was taught during a three-week interim session. In addition to evening meetings, three all-day Saturday sessions were held. The connected knowing class environment was designed to encourage the development of voice. Through readings, guest lectures, interactive discussions, and student panel presentations, participants examined the research about women in leadership positions in K-12 education, higher education, business and the public sector. In describing the collaborative exploration possible in connected knowing groups, Belenky and co-authors state that "through mutual stretching and sharing the group achieves a vision richer than any individual could achieve alone" (1986, p. 119). For the women in this class, this richer vision included the understanding that developing voice is integral to developing leadership, and that it is all right for women to lead differently than men. One woman described the impact of this mutual stretching and sharing in these words: "My interactions with class members were enlightening. . .after sharing myself with them, and they with me, I felt a 'bond' that we shared in our journey to learn and be leaders."

Instrument or Product Development

A cooperative learning project that can lead to the development of a publishable product or in this case, assessment instrument, has also been used successfully with graduate students. In groups, students choose an area of interest to assess, and then using procedures employed in test development, develop their own assessment instrument. For example, one instrument developed, that has since been used in a master's thesis, was the "Wellness Assessment For the Elderly". This instrument was developed based on research regarding the elderly and their quality of life according to a wellness model. The group developed the instrument, piloted it with the class, demonstrated validity and reliability of the instrument, and presented their product to the entire class. Some instruments that have been developed have the potential to be useful for research as well as practice. Students are encouraged to write an article based on their instrument to submit to a professional journal. One student commented that this activity "was a lot of work, but an extremely valuable experience."

Johnson and Johnson (1994) identify five elements that must be present for effective cooperative learning. The elements include positive interdependence, individual accountability, group processing, interpersonal and group skills, and face to face interaction. These elements contribute to successful adult learning as described by Knowles (1984). The group investigation, prevention program and other cooperative learning projects described exemplify this approach to learning. Graduate students report that some of the most important learning occurs through the planned interactions, research and processing. Although significant investment in planning and preparation time is required for cooperative learning projects, the learning that results is well worth the effort.

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