Reynolds

STEPPING STONES AND STUMBLING BLOCKS
FOR WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS WORKING IN ACADEME

Judith A. Reynolds, Ed.D.

ABSTRACT

STEPPING STONES AND STUMBLING BLOCKS

FOR WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS WORKING IN ACADEME

With more than half of the U.S. population being women today, their share of leadership and economic rewards remain unfulfilled in the labor force (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993). For women who aspire to be administrators/managers in academe, like women who have excelled in leadership roles at the corporate level, much needs to be done to overcome a system of values and a code of behavior which was designed to "accommodate and perpetuate" the masculine characteristics (Swoboda & Vanerbosch, 1986).

Although the status of top-level women administrators at public co-educational institutions has improved somewhat during the last decade, much remains to be accomplished (White, 1986). To create a supportive and stimulating environment, an institution needs to reexamine its goals and recognize the nature of the present state of affairs. Institutions need to come to understand that integration "into a melting pot, in the old sense of amalgamation and an implicit loss of group identity, is no longer a vialble goal" (Pearson, Shavlick, and Touchton, 1989).

The objective of this paper, through a review of the literature, is to help women considering leadership positions in academe that the masculine approach to providing leadership for an organization is only one way of being an effective leader. Women administrators today are discovering that feminine leadership techniques are just as effective as the techniques used by their male counterparts and that their opportunities for advancement and success in an organization, especially in higher education, is equally as promising.

I. STEREOTYPING AND LEADERSHIP ROLES

A. Introduction

behaviors designed to "accommodate and perpetuate its masculine characters" (Swoboda & Vanderbosch, 1986, p. 1).

B. Male vs. Female Leadership Styles

Women who aspire to educational leadership positions in the male-defined structure of academe can "either live her womanliness up" or she can "live it down" (Swoboda & Vanderbosch, 1986, p. 1). If she chooses to practice a profession by following the rules and habits long established by male practitioners she risks offending the old customs defining female virtue. If she behaves in a professional environment according to archaic female norms she appears weak (Aisenberg & Harrington, 1988).

The following contradictions demonstrate the conflict women experience in regards to how they are expected to behave as women and how they are expected to behave as professionals (adapted from Huber cited in Sandler & Hall, 1986):

He is aggressive. She is pushy.

He's a stern taskmaster. She's hard to work for. He is good on details. She is picky.

He worked very hard. She slept her way through graduate school.

He loses his temper because he's so involved in his

job. She's bitchy.

He gets angry. She is emotional.

He's closed-mouthed. She's secretive.

When he's depressed (or hungover), everyone tiptoes past his office. She's moody, so it must be her time of month.

He exercises authority diligently. She's power mad.

He isn't afraid to say what he thinks. She's mouthy.

He follows through. She doesn't know when to quit.

He drinks because of the excessive job pressure. She's a lush.

He's confident. She's conceited.

He stands firm. She's hard.

He has good judgment. She has women's intuition (p. 5)

Psychologically, the attitudes women have toward themselves and their professional roles have been influenced by American culture, society, and tradition (Morgan-Lee, 1986) and has reinforced the belief that women are "temperamentally" ill-suited for leadership positions (Adams & Yoder, 1985).

Dr. Michelle Howard-Vital, Vice Chancellor of the North Carolina Education System, in a telephone interview on April 8, 1994, shared some thoughts on how she has been able to maintain a positive attitude as an African-American woman in a high level leadership position. According to Dr. Howard-Vital (1994), an African-American woman "needs to develop a sense of personal competence, personal excellence and ultimately be able to determine what is important in terms of evaluation and observations by others". Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) further states that "I have come to the point where evaluations by others are not that important for my self esteem. What is most important is my personal assessment. Did I learn from the situation? Did I grow?"

Although Dr. Howard-Vital's (1994) remarks were made in reference to her leadership role as an African-American woman, her comments provide sound advice on ways in which all women can cope with the negative attitudes they confront in professional roles.

II. WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP POSITIONS

A. Feminine Principles and Effective Management/Leadership

In a seminar titled Women in Management conducted by Webb and Holmes (1994), women are encouraged to make a paradigm shift from the masculine to the feminine way of doing things when placed in leadership or management positions. Webb cautions, however, against throwing out all male behavior because the new paradigm in management is neither male nor female.

Administrators in charge of managing staff are encouraged to look beyond the external/masculine characteristics utilized to maintain control over employees and to look inward to the internal/feminine traits to help empower employees. An example of the external/masculine and internal/feminine leadership styles paper distributed in the seminar appears in Appendix A.

B. Intuitive Principles

Holmes (1994), in making a distinction between leadership and management states that the only difference between leadership and management is that a leader has vision. Holmes (1994) provides a list of 10 intuition principles visionaries should abide by when placed in leadership roles:

1) Make sure you keep yourself balanced all day.

2) Be sensitive to the energy level of those around you.

3) Choose the appropriate time to use your intuitive sense.

4) Lessen your impulse to rely on intuition when common sense is needed.

5) Assess the impact of your intuitive sense on others and the organization.

6) Avoid exploiting others based only on your intuitions.

7) Verify your intuitive sense against others' insights.

8) Establish a checklist to assess your intuition against results.

9) Respect others' intuition as much as you respect your own.

10) Follow conscious and explicit ethical standards.

Holmes states that to build on your intuitive self you need to:

1) allow yourself to be balanced.

2) hold a conversation with your subconscious from time to time.

3) get to know your own internal "yes" signal.

4) make transition to a greater "risk".

5) trust your intuition in the moment.

6) determine your own parameters of trusting others--logic and intuition.

III. WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS AND ACADEME

A. Empowerment and Organizational Structure

Sagaria (1988) support Holmes & Webb's (1994) call for empowerment in promoting leadership development. Sagaria (1988) favors a model of "leadership compatible with the lives of women-students, administrators, staff, and faculty, majority and minority" because "the role of the participants are grounded in the culture and organizational structure" (p. 1) of our institutions of higher education.

Sagaria and Johnsrud (1988) stresses the concept of generative leadership which is defined as that which fosters productivity, creativity, and a sense of self-esteem and "focuses on the nature and quality of the connections among persons and the context in which they occur" (p. 25) as a means of empowering women as well as other under- represented persons in the campus community.

Although colleges and universities have economic, legal, and ethical reasons for addressing the special problems of women through policy and procedures, their motivation does not guarantee a graduate education experience which meets the special needs of women in educational administration (Marshall, 1986). Policy-makers are encouraged to:

investigate the barriers that are preventing younger married women with dependents from entering programs and the appropriateness of the norm for entry into administration being before the age thirty, asking whether these norms are fair to women whose life stages differ from those of men. We need to examine the needs of older women students to see whether the universities have devised ways to raise their aspirations and to help school districts to value the expertise of women students and place women in administration positions (Marshall, 1986, p. 56).

The structure of academic organizations are viewed as a deterrent to aspiring women managers because it is the belief that heterogeneity in managers is harmful to an organizations stability and survival (Morgan-Lee, 1986). However, to develop educational institutions whose "central organizing concept is multicultural excellence based on Democratic acceptance of both the commonalities and difference of all groups on campus, "senior administrators need to envision a campus not organized according to patriarchal, white," male norms (Bensimon & Tierney, 1993, p. 68). The best administrators in institutions are the most creative and responsive to change. They are the ones most open to the advancement of women and minorities. Rigid "institutions not employing women and minorities" and are wasting tremendous visions and potential (Tinsley, 1986, p. 13).

Though some gains have been made within academe, women are still confronted with a "glass ceiling" and have a long way to go to be on equal footing with their male counterparts (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993). Women of color (African American, Hispanic, American Indian and Asian American women) have made gains at most levels of eduction, however, there are still significant disparities between their educational attainments and those of their white complement. According to Sandler and Hall (1986):

Minority women are not often viewed as a group with specific concerns. Some programs aimed at recruiting minority faculty and students may focus primarily on minority men; similarly, programs aimed at helping women may overlook minority women (p. 13)

Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) openly discussed her views about stereotyping and states that she doesn't let the fact that she is an African-American woman "derail" her from being a credible professional. She states that she doesn't think of herself as "an African American woman unless it becomes an issue for someone else". At that point, she looks outside herself and sees people of various colors. She says that "ultimately, I am just glad to be an American, and I hope I am making a contribution for blacks and whites".

B. Women and Demographic Trends in Academe

Ottinger & Sikula (1993) analyzed economic and demographic trends women have held within academe as administrators over the last decade (1981-1991) and reflected on the following:

o Four in ten (40 percent) full-time administrators were women. There was an increase of women administrators from 1981 (33,901) to 1991 (54,959).

o Over the ten-year period reviewed, the number of women of color administrators more than doubled (4,288 to 8,742).

o White women constituted 84 percent of women in administrative positions. Eleven percent were African American, 3 percent were Hispanics, 2 percent were Asian Americans, and less than one-half of one percent were American Indians.

It is essential that efforts be made to increase the number of all women and women of color in administrative positions, and to "develop and identify leadership programs that prepare all qualified women to take positions in the academic and executive office of academe" (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993, p. 10). Integrating women into the professional life of colleges and universities will be an ongoing challenge requiring an awareness and support from all members of the academic community throughout the institutions (Sandler & Hall, 1986).

Appendix B and C details a list of recommendations (Sandler & Hall, 1986, pp. 17-18) to help improve the professional climate for women in academe by monitoring progress through honest and open dialogue and evaluation.

IV. PAVING THE ROAD TO BEING AN ACADEMIC ADMINISTRATOR

A. Moving from Faculty to Administration

Dr. Shirley Stennis-William (1994), Dean of Education at Edinboro University of PA made five important points in a symposium titled Moving from Faculty to Administration: The Faculty Route:

1) Women take unusual routes on their way to becoming an administrator.

2) When in higher education, make sure to keep your pillars (research, teaching, and service) as a base.

3) Take challenges as opportunities and be willing to accept the white male as a mentor because there are not enough women in administrative positions.

4) Take administrative positions which are not ideal.

5) Be willing to widen your employment circle and do not make yourself "place bound".

B. Paths to Academic Administration

Stennis-Williams (1994) stated that "women must expect unexpected twist and turns as they move toward meeting their professional goals". Unlike men, who typically following a rather standard career path to administration, women take paths which are more like "cow paths". According to Stennis-Williams (1994), women often find themselves stepping cautiously in one direction and then discovering they need to find another route to their destination. She further stated that "sometimes you're not sure where you're going to get and where you'd like to go".

Palermo's (1985) study of the "Definitions for Success in Job Related Tasks for Secondary Administrators and Teachers with Regard to Values Orientation and Sex" raises questions about the place of values orientation and success definitions on the decision made by the females who aspire to become educational administrators. Results of Palermo's (1985) study further questions whether female administrators are motivated to seek administrative positions due to "cultural and environmental influence long before their

promotions" (p. 127).

C. Three Pillars in Education

Stennis-Williams (1994) encourages all women who wish to pursue the administrative tract to make sure the three pillars of professional development (teaching, research, and service) are always in tact. Professional development activities are an important way to improve job performance and career potential. Administrators are seeing a need to create their own professional development experiences since opportunities for sabbatical and resources to support individually created activities are just becoming available (McDade, 1990).

D. Mentoring in Academe

Morgan-Lee (1986) research titled "Leadership and Managerial Styles of Top-Level Women Administrators in Four-Year Institutions of Higher Education" found that women administrators asked about their models of effective leadership, all but one of the 10 women administrators, stated they had models who were mostly males. Some of the things women administrators found they learned from male mentors included "personal integrity, personal confidence, reflection before action, and the ability to see the best in others" (p. 46). On the negative side, the characteristics which the female administrators found undesirable were "procrastination or failing to act on an issue responsibly, and destroying colleagues in front of each other because of a personal need for power" (Morgan-Lee, 1986, p. 46).

A study conducted by Kline (1987) in which six female administrators were interviewed in depth, indicate that mentors emerged as a significant factor in their professional development and provided opportunities which lead to their current positions. Four of the six females interviewed in Kline's (1987) study mentioned that their mentors were male. Only one female administrator mentioned having a female mentor. Comments made by the female administrators having male mentors included (Kline, 1987, p. 232):

o Throughout my doctoral studies he was supportive and eventually, very instrumental in helping me attain an administrative position.

o having a male mentor was probably important to success in a man's world.

o working with an all male administrative

staff. . . taught me how to be comfortable with men in a professional setting and prepared me for the conflicts I encountered when I became one of the first female superintendents in Pennsylvania.

The female administrator who mentioned having a female mentor described her situation as if an anomaly occurred:

o I was at a point of stagnation . . . I was ambitious, but didn't know what direction to focus my ambitions. Then the absurd happened--a female was hired as an administrator in our district! She set an example that motivated me to think that I could do this, too. She provided the support and confidence that made my attainment of this position possible (Kline, 1987, p. 233).

In the interview with Dr. Howard-Vital (1994), mentoring was discussed. Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) stated that she was fortunate to "have a good friend who is ten years older". The friend is another African-American woman who is a psychologist. Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) commented that the friend helped her understand some of her "motivations and fears".

Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) believes that as an African-American woman in a leadership position there is a definite need for support mechanisms. Support mechanisms as she perceives them include: 1) friends to call and discuss events; 2) family members who are knowledgeable and sympathetic; and 3) colleagues at other institutions. According to Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) to not feel isolated one needs to have "others to discuss solutions and options".

Johnsrud (1990) states that even though a mentor can be very helpful in building an administrative career in higher education, mentoring relationships can sometimes be detrimental. She recommends understanding both the advantages and the risks inherent to mentoring relationships before entering into one.

Negative experiences which Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) has faced as an administrator in the past have been in trusting too many people with "glimpses" of her soul and her dreams. She says she now realizes that "some people are mean-spirited and jealous".

Although the experiences of the female administrators in Kline's (1987) study demonstrate some of the positive experiences resulting from mentoring relationships with men, Swoboda and Millar (1986) have cautioned against entering mentoring relationships because by there very nature they can be hierarchical, exploitative and create a certain degree of dependency. Additional debate has taken place about the wisdom of entering a cross-sex mentoring relationship because of the likelihood of romance being suspected or assumed by others (Johnsrud, 1990). Nonetheless, until more top-level women administrators become available for mentoring, aspiring women administrators must seek out male mentors willing to foster a supportive relationship in the workplace that can contribute to career success. In most organizations there are many more people qualified than can be admitted to "the inner circle of leadership at any one time" (Morgan-Lee, 1986, p. 17). The mentor, however, "is one link between the pool of qualified candidates and the inner circle" (Moore, 1980, p. 4). As a general rule, guidance and role modeling seem to be the most important functions of mentoring (Twombly, 1990).

E. Networking in Academe

Networks have also served to combat isolation and to provide women with access to needed information about the milieu in which they exist or wish to exist, and has provided an important dimension for women who want to advance into the traditional male power structure. Although "affirmative action and equal employment ostensibly encourages greater participation of underrepresented groups, access routes need to be identified and smoothed, and support mechanism developed" (Green, 1986, p. 65). Networking is especially important because it provides support and access to women in need of counsel, moral support, and information to help them reach career goals and aspirations.

Two successful institutional networking programs sponsored by the American Council on Education are the ACE Fellows Program and the ACE National Identification Program (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993). The ACE Fellows Program's primary purpose is to prepare promising higher education leaders for senior administrative position through a year-long internship program (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993).

The ACE National Identification Program was established in 1977, through the use of state-based networks (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993) to bring together on a state and national level women who are ready to assume significant leadership positions in colleges and universities and to enable them to meet and interact with men and women who are recognized as educational leaders (Green, 1986).

Some observations about the effectiveness of networking mentioned by Green (1986) include:

1) the act of identifying and recognizing the capabilities of able and ambitious people is the first and key step.

2) critical linkages developed with others who aspire to and who are advancing towards leadership positions.

3) an extended network to reach into the ranks of leaders who by virtue of their experience and positions can help aspiring men and women to achieve their goals (p. 68).

F. Turning Negatives Events into Positive Outcomes

Moore (1990) agrees with Stennis-Williams (1994) recommendation that there is a need for females to take less than ideal low-level administrative positions and turn the "negative aspects of a situations into positive ones" (p. 92). Moore (1990) states that:

the visibility that comes from being one of only a few female or minority administrators on campus is not always a bad thing. Personal opportunities can grow from being visible . . . being visible can provide access to people and to agencies that less visible people do not have. Being known can open doors. It may make it easier to be heard as well as seen (p. 92)

Although assistant to or assistant/associate positions are sometimes viewed as likely to be dead-ends, "this is not necessarily the case. For some people, these positions are invaluable training grounds and stepping stones" (Ross & Green, 1990, p. 47) to top level administrative positions.

G. Mobility and Women in Academic Administration

Stennis-Williams (1994) says that many women find themselves "place bound" because of limitations attributed to marriage and family which limits possibilities for movement into administrative positions in higher education. Dublon (1986) supports the "place bound" concept by suggesting that:

although overt discrimination against women has received the greatest attention among obstacles to advancement in higher education, the dilemma of trying to combine marriage, family, and career may be the more pervasive deterrent to women's career goals (p. 43)

In a research project centered on how many women are actually moving up into higher level of eduction administration it was found that many women had changed positions recently, but the great majority of women have built their careers in one institution (Moore & Sagaria, 1986). There was relatively little movement across the institutions in the state of Pennsylvania and little from the other states.

Women who aspire to enter the upper levels of higher education administration must be prepared and ready to move themselves and their families to a new location if they wish to advance professionally (Tinsley, 1986).

V. BARRIERS AND COPING STRATEGIES FOR WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS

A. Skills, Survival and Coping Strategies

What skills, survival and coping strategies are needed by women administrators? This questions was posed in a survey (Morgan-Lee, 1986) to 10 men and 10 women who were in top-level administrative positions at four-year institutions of higher education. The skills, survival, and coping strategies mentioned five or more times by both the men and women administrators appear in Table I (Morgan-Lee, 1986, p. 54):

TABLE I

SKILLS, SURVIVAL AND COPING STRATEGIES

NEEDED BY WOMEN

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>= FEMALES >= MALES >=

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>= >= >=

>= Self confidence >= Confidence >=

>= Be a woman--not a man >= That's okay >=

>= Confidential relationship >= Friends outside of work >=

>= outside of work >= >=

>= Outside hobbies >= Pursue outside interests >=

>= Not taking things personally>= Separate personal and >=

>= >= professional life >=

>= Know that you did your best >= Can't please everyone >=

>= Discrimination is a fact >= Don't support stereotype >=

>= Personal life above reproach>= Know institutional agenda>=

>= Trade offs for leadership >= You're not the savior >=

>= positions >= >=

>= Responsive to all roles >= >=

>= Competent in field >= >=

>= Good physical health >= >=

>= Say no when you "blow it" >= >=

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B. Roadblocks that Affect Successful Leadership

In addition to discovering the skills necessary to cope as a woman administrator, Morgan-Lee (1986) sought to find what were some of the "roadblocks" which hamper and affect women administrators from becoming successful in their positions. As before, only the responses marked five or more times by the men and women administrators are included in the Table II (Morgan-Lee, 1986, p. 55):

TABLE II

ROADBLOCKS THAT AFFECT SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP

>= FEMALES >= MALES >=

>= >= >=

>= Prejudices by men >= Male attitudes, men don't>=

>= >= want to work with women>=

>= Lack of acceptance into >= Women shy away from >=

>= leadership channels >= leadership >=

>= Women are not considered >= Small number of women, >=

>= as serious candidates >= therefore women are >=

>= by men >= vulnerable to attack >=

>= >= or negative attitudes >=

>= Women can't do it all/ >= Family and professional >=

>= multiple roles >= roles in conflict >=

>= Men and women devalue >= Women have problems >=

>= women's contributions >= with women >=

>= Women need to hire help >= >=

One of the male administrators stated that he didn't think that women had any roadblocks to overcome. He further stated that if women want something badly enough they'll get it (Morgan-Lee, 1986). Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) agrees with the male administrator and states that she has not had many "roadblocks in terms of" her leadership positions. Whenever roadblocks do occur, Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) views them as "challenges" so relaxes and lets her natural creativity and resourcefulness lead her.

Dr. Howard-Vital (1994) feels that in her current position she is "empowered too much". She states that "I can meet with the mayor, the city planner, the head of the film studio, you name it. They might not like me but I must represent UNCW and convey myself as a credible professional and not let their stereotypes derail me."

In making comparisons of female administrators with male administrators, (Morgan-Lee, 1986) some styles and approaches provide patterns that are similar for both the men and women; however, there are significant differences in the styles and approaches. The difference in leadership styles of female and male administrators does not point to a difference that is better or worse, but rather to the acceptance of multiple approaches to providing leadership. In defining leadership and management styles, women administrators have recognized feminine leadership techniques which have helped in achieving success (Morgan-Lee, 1986) and provided opportunities for them to have an impact on higher education.

VI. SUMMARY

Evidence does support the fact that gender stereotypes, sex-roles, and biological sex differences have influenced the role of leadership in American. With more than half of the U.S. population being women today, their share of leadership and economic rewards remain unfulfilled in the labor force (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993). To create a supportive and stimulating environment, an institution needs to reexamine its goals and recognize the nature of the present state of affairs. Institutions need to come to understand that integration "into a melting pot, in the old sense of amalgamation and an implicit loss of group identity, is no longer a viable goal" (Pearson, Shavlick, and Touchton, 1989).

Intensive efforts are needed to increase the number of women administrators who can build a diverse institution free from sexual discrimination for the future of our country as a whole and for future of women themselves (Ottinger & Sikula, 1993).

A P P E N D I C E S

APPENDIX A

LEADERSHIP STYLES

External/Masculine Internal/Feminine

EMPOWERMENT

By "management" By "leadership"

Through "punishments" Through "reward"

"Demanding" respect "Inviting" feedback

As a drill sergeant As a motivator

Limits and defines Empowers and trusts

"Imposes" discipline "Values" creativity

"Bottom Line" "Vision"

RESTRUCTURE

By "control" By "change"

By "rank" By "connection"

Hierarchial Networking

Rigid Flexible

Automatic raises Pay for performance

Performance review Mutual discussion

progress

Mechanistic Wholistic

Compartmental Systemic

TEACHING/FACILITATING

Order-giving Facilitating/guiding

Military archetype Teaching archetype

ROLE MODEL

Issues "orders" "Acts" as a role

model

OPENNESS

Keeping people on their toes Nourishing environ-

ment for growth

Reach up/down Reach out

Information "control" Information

"available"

QUESTIONER

Knows all the answers Asks the right

questions

Source: Aburdene, P. & Naisbitt, J. (1992)

APPENDIX B

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

1) Issue a policy statement that makes it clear that differential treatment of professional women on campus will not be tolerated.

2) Educate all members of the academic community--including board members, administrators, faculty, students and staff--about professional climate issues.

3) Establish a permanent committee to explore and report on professional climate issues.

4) Designate a particular person (such as ombudsperson) or office to be responsible for institution-wide efforts to ensure an equitable professional climate.

5) Hire more women at all levels, including top administrative ranks, and promote more women into senior and tenured positions.

6) Evaluate all cutbacks in staff and programs to ensure that the burden does not fall disproportionately on women.

7) Work to have more women on governing boards.

8) Adopt a nonsexist language policy.

9) Ensure that complain procedures for students, faculty, and staff can accommodate subtle differential treatment as well as overt discrimination.

10) Publish an annual report on progress in regard to women on campus.

APPENDIX C

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

1) Regularly gather data by sex, race, and age.

2) Ensure that all efforts to improve the climate for women recognize the special concerns of minority women.

3) Survey and/or interview women and men faculty and administrators, as well as gradate and professional students, to assess the climate for professional women on campus in the community.

4) Use offices and structures already in place to evaluate professional climate.

5) Sponsor formal and informal campus programs that address the professional climate for women.

6) Evaluate campus media.

7) Build institutional supports for both women and men to help them balance professional and family responsibilities.

8) Foster mentoring opportunities for women at all levels.

9) Bring women to campus as visiting scholars.

10) Recognize women's accomplishments.

11) Develop and distribute information about the professional climate for women in general and be sensitive to the social needs of those professionals who do not fit the campus "norms".

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