AN-ADVERTISING DISCLOSURE IN
TELEVISION COMMERCIALS FOR CHILDREN:
SUMMARY FINDINGS OF A FIVE-YEAR LONGITUDINAL STUDY

Keith B. Murray, Bryant College

This research describes the results of a 5-year longitudinal study (1989, 1991, and 1993) that tracks in-advertising disclosure in children's programming for three weeks across relevant dayparts on 7 major television media sources. Cartoon programming is examined for the presence of affirmative disclosure. The nature of disclosure is reported and analyzed across product categories on relevant placement, perceptual and comprehension variables. The nature and role of disclosure in children's advertising are discussed. The purpose of this research is to clarify key issues with respect to the dominance of in-advertising disclosure directed to children and in so doing bring into focus the role of corporate social responsibility, consumer action, and public policy in with respect to children's programming.

Despite interest on the part of regulators, legislators, and special interest groups, a particular lack of information and knowledge exists regarding the extent and nature of in-advertising disclosure (IAD) generally, and specifically as it pertains to children 's programming in television media. Although the controversy regarding the merits of children 's advertising has received a great deal of attention in the public and scholarly press, disclosure to children should represent a topic of vital interest to consumers, business, behavioral scientists, and public policy scholars. In view of the data presented in this paper with respect to affirmative disclosure 's prevalence and character in children 's programming, it is likely that all parties with an interest in public policy will increasingly desire to devote more attention and action to this issue.

Beyond an abstract discussion relative to the merits (or lack thereof) of advertising to children, the market for children 's products is considerable. As a consequence, producers and distributors find this population an extremely attractive group to target with commercial messages. Children control financial resources, making purchases directly (Packaging, 1991) or influencing expenditures in a $17 billion toy market (Advertising Age, 1993; Fortune, 1994) or the $87 billion in sales of fast-food to families (Brandweek, 1994) as two examples of the substantial markets that influence commercial messages directed at children through mass media.

The prevalence of in-advertising disclosure in television broadcast media is extensive (Murray and Popper, 1993; Murray, 1994a; Murray, 1994b) and appears to be increasing. What accounts for the incidence of affirmative disclosure in the media is multi-faceted and complex. From perspective of producers, the occurrence of IAD in commercial communication contexts is functionally and legally understandable. First, affirmative disclosure permits the technical transmission of information that theoretically informs the consumer decision making process and, at the same time, provides some legal protection from exposure to Lanham Act violations. While the rationale on both accounts frequently stems from technical considerations, the practical effects on producers and advertisers are considerable and likely to foster the practice of IAD.

From the consumer's perspective, by contrast, the role of affirmative disclosure is theoretically positive as well, but practically less obvious, fraught with controversy, and potentially negative. Although the communication of product, consumption, and transactional terms may occur in a strict, technical sense, the actual impact and effectiveness of such measures on consumer decision making are less obvious and, thus, more suspect in terms of the desirability of disclaimers from the prospective buyer 's point of view. For young consumers, a constructive role for affirmative disclosure is even more ambiguous and problematic than for adults. Since much of disclosure is, in both theory and reality, dependent on visual and auditory acuity as well as the ability of buyer prospects to perceive and comprehend relevant information, the capacity of young consumers to master these requirements is dubious. To the degree that disclosure poses communication tasks that are arguably formidable for adults, the practical effect upon younger consumers is even more questionable. Thus, with the apparent, yet heretofore undocumented, dominance of IAD in children 's advertising, the role of affirmative disclosure poses real albeit subtle cultural, economic, and public policy problems.

Consequently, this research focuses on disclosure in programming to children with the objective of systematically examining the prevalence, nature, and implications of IAD by U. S. advertisers in a major television market. Using data from a 3-wave, 5-year longitudinal study on the prevalence of affirmative disclosure, key specific parameters are identified, examined, and reported. Study data provide definitive and objective measures of (1) the relative occurrence of in-ad disclosures in television media with respect to relevant product categories, and (2) an analysis of the nature and characteristics of those disclosures for the five year period.

A considerable literature exists regarding affirmative disclosure and public policy (e.g., Kinnear, Taylor, and Gur-Arie, 1984; Wilkie, 1987; Wilkie, 1983) as does a well-developed discussion with respect to relevant consumer issues (e.g., Jacoby, Nelson, and Hoyer, 1982; Mazis, Staelin, Beales, and Salop, 1981; Thorelli and Engledow, 1980; Mazis and Staelin, 1982). Further, some research as to the effects (or, arguably more accurately, non-effects) of affirmative disclosure have been reported (e.g., Day, 1976; Miller, 1977; Moore and Pride, 1980; Best, 1989). Unfortunately, the preponderance of theoretical attention, focused research, and policy discussion in this area has been directed to mature consumer issues.

While some noteworthy discussion has focused on advertising to children generally (see Resnik, Stern, and Alberty, 1979; Macklin, 1987, 1983; Bever, Smith, Bengen, and Johnson, 1975), the impact of disclosure on children has been less well-developed. A few studies have attempted to examine the role of IAD in the information processing of children (see Armstrong and Brucks, 1988; Stutts and Hunnicutt, 1987). In addition, some scholars have conducted content analysis (e.g., Kolbe and Muehling, 1992), noting the potentially misleading properties of disclosure. Despite the equivocal effects of disclosure on consumer decision making processes, incidence measures for television broadcast programming generally and children programming specifically have largely gone unexamined in a formal manner (see Stern and Harmon, 1984; Liebert, Sprafkin, Liebert, and Rubinstein, 1977). However, such data constitute a particularly worthy topic of interest, for attention to these measures is especially relevant when the potentially adverse effects fostered by affirmative disclosure are considered.

Boundaries of Affirmative Disclosure

Affirmative disclosures represent attempts by advertisers albeit incidentally to convey important and ostensibly relevant information to prospective consumers regarding the product, price, distribution, relevant markets, transactional, and/or promotional terms associated with the advertisement. Stern and Harmon (1984) define a disclaimer as a statement or disclosure made with the purpose of clarifying or qualifying potentially misleading or deceptive statements made within an advertisement. Kolbe and Muehling (1992) refer to affirmative disclosure "supers" as "fine print." For this study affirmative disclosure was operationalized using the following definition:

In-advertising disclosure is any explicit statement that qualifies, limits, or provides specific substantiation which diminishes, or detracts from, the attractiveness or applicability of one or more of the following: the promotional claim; the transaction terms being offered; product benefits; or applicable markets. In the case of quantifiable claims, terms that expressly or implicitly reduce quantitative specificity are also disclosures (such statements include, but are not limited to, such phrases as "up to," "more than," "almost," "less than," "beginning at," etc.).

Also, information mandated for inclusion in commercials by governmental regulation (e.g., warning messages) are disclosures, per se.

In terms of public policy interest with respect to negative effect on consumers and thus falling under the regulatory purview of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) an advertising claim must be both deceptive and material. Advertising claims lacking relevance or importance to buyers are not deemed "material" by the FTC. By contrast, communications that do affect or influence consumers purchase decisions would be considered consequential, since prospective purchasers are entitled to receive what, in effect, they intend to buy. Thus, any advertising communication with disclosure is potentially "deceptive" to the degree that it may induce consumers to purchase one thing and yet receive something else which may not meet prior expectations. Hence, the informational function of affirmative disclosure is especially critical.

The question of whether advertisers are responsible for all omissions in their ads has been considered by public policy makers (e.g., Wilkie, 1987) and revolves around whether the omitted information is important to consumer understanding, rather than important to inducing purchase. Given the functional implications of disclosure in advertising, the incidence of disclosure is therefore potentially very important. The extent to which consumers may be dependent on relevant cues provided by affirmative disclosure underscores the critical question of its dominance in the media.

Presumably, all television commercials convey some information by both visual and audio stimuli which provide important information to at least some portion of the audience. With respect to children, the results from two studies by Macklin (1983, 1987) on preschoolers' understanding of the informational function of television advertising showed that a minority of older preschoolers were able to indicate an understanding of the informational function of advertising. The results of a study by Stutts and Hunnicutt (1987) indicated that age does affect ability to give correct verbal responses to questions concerning disclaimers, and the ability to do so increases with age. These researches theorize that there is difference between verbal and non verbal responses due to "blinder effects" that cause selective retention of the commercial content. Seeing an attractive and desired product in a television commercial may trigger such strong emotions that the child ignores the disclaimer. Indeed, many commercials in children programming have a great deal of movement and sound occurring simultaneously. Such movement and sound could be a pleasant distraction to children causing them to block out or miss other portions of the commercial such as a disclosure.

bResearch Objectives

In view of the considerable debate regarding the role of advertising to children, the role of affirmative disclosure to young viewers assumes a particular importance; indeed, if from a public policy perspective there is question with respect to the advisability of media promotion to children generally to children, the impact as well as indirect effects of affirmative disclosure in advertising assume a special poignancy. While there has been some on-going attention in the literature devoted to advertising to children, per se, there has been a deficiency of focus on affirmative disclosure in such advertising. Indeed, little appears to be known with respect to the degree of incidence and relevant descriptive aspects of in-advertising disclosure to young viewers. Thus, this research endeavors to accomplish two broad research objectives with respect to this topic. Fundamentally, it seeks to determine the prevalence of affirmative disclosure in programming targeted to children and specifically as it occurs in cartoon vehicles. While measures of incidence of disclosure in television broadcast generally have been noted (Murray and Popper, 1993), such knowledge with respect to commercial messages directed to young television viewers has not heretofore been reported.

A second purpose of this research is to provide a meaningful descriptive analysis of affirmative disclosure in terms of relevant advertising and communication factors with respect to relevant information processing criteria. This objective posits the need to determine if affirmative disclosure in children 's programming is such that full knowledge of the promotional communication is perceived and comprehended as widely acknowledged by accepted information processing paradigms. In terms of relevant advertising categories the research seeks to investigate affirmative disclosure to children relative to (a) levels of incidence, (b) the frequency of presentation characteristics; (c) placement attributes; and information processing-related considerations. Collectively these facets of affirmative disclosure describe germane elements of commercial communication and provide a basis for evaluating public policy implications, if any, with respect to this phenomena.

In the section that follows, relevant elements of the research procedures and methodology are described, including the scope of the study design, tabulation and rating procedures, sample profile, and approach to statistical analysis.

The sample of cartoon programming employed in this research was derived from a larger, more extensive broadcast dataset extending over a five year period. Specifically, paid advertising in a systematic sample of television programming was analyzed for affirmative disclosure in programming to children during the third week of March for the years of 1989, 1991, and 1993. Broadcast sampling during March was judged to be an appropriate sampling frame in terms of representativeness of television viewership in the U.S. for an entire year, and essentially devoid of the variations associated with ÒsweepsÓ weeks as well as summer periods. Longitudinal program sampling during three different time periods separated by two intervening years was deemed to provide an additional measure of data reliability and representativeness.

Scope And Nature Of Study

Media programming (and thus accompanying commercial communications) were collected from seven broadcast sources. Specifically, television media included the three major networks (ABC, CBS, NBC); two cable network sources (CNN, ESPN); a super station source, Turner Broadcasting System (TBS); and a major market independent station (WSBK). These specific vehicles represent principal television alternatives available in broadcast advertising for the five year period studied, permitting the examination of different markets and audiences. The locale in which these data were monitored was the greater Boston metropolitan area, reflecting a systematic and random sample of television programming in a major U.S. market.

Programming directed specifically to children was identified by several coincidental and converging judgmental factors: time of day, type of programming, and products advertised. Daypart programming most likely to be viewed by children are early morning periods as well as after school times. Entertainment content characterized by cartoon programming was assumed to be directed primarily to children; this type of programming was readily evident by the animated nature of its composition. Further, the coincidental dominance of certain advertised product categories was also indicative of programming targeted to children and included snack and food products as well as toys and games. Operational determination of programming to children was thus viewed as the intersection of these three factors and constitutes a conservative approach to identifying television advertising targeting children.

For all programming included in the database, 16 30-minute time periods and one 1-hour period were identified as cartoon programming and consequently representing communication to children.

Disclosure Tabulation

Three trained judges independently examined program commercials for each year of the study. The intent of the principal investigator, to employ multiple raters, was intended to enhance the objectivity of the data collection process and establish a basis for the use of inter-rater reliability measures. Raters were instructed and tested for accuracy and recall as to the conceptual definition of affirmative disclosure as well as the operational identification with respect to both audio and visual occurrence

Two types of commercials identified by the judges were precluded from the study. First, excluded from analysis was each media's own program advertising and/or promotion. Commercials of this nature, by virtue of not being "paid for" in a strict, conventional sense were deemed to be "fillers" and thus not representative of advertising generally. Second, institutional advertising as well as commercials of a public service announcement nature were, a priori, omitted from the study. The exclusion of these type of announcements represented a distinctively divergent "commercial" message compared to consumer package goods or services, not typically intended to effect explicit, commercial exchanges.

Sample Profile

The sampling universe of commercials from which the cartoon advertising subset was derived was composed of approximately 3300 commercials. The research findings for disclosure in cartoon programming are based on nine hours from this greater advertising sample. (While the greater programming-advertising sample of commercials provide opportunity to examine broadcast disclosure for other audiences associated with various daypart periods as well as types of television sources, the cartoon advertising sample constitutes a subordinate proportion of the sample. Nonetheless, this sample of television viewership is sufficiently large to examine programming devoted to children, per se, since it represents a substantial share of television programming devoted to a general viewing audience during nonfringe periods.) A total of 198 commercials were examined.

Rating Procedures

Commercials were initially examined to identify if affirmative disclosure was present, and subsequently how many disclosures were present within the commercial. The length of both the commercial and present disclosures were recorded. A calibrated timing device was used to determine the length of the commercial and the length of any disclosures whether the disclosure was verbal or visual in nature. If the disclosure was visual (i.e., displayed text) the timing measurement captured the time the text was displayed on the television screen. If the disclosure was verbal, the determination of the source of the spoken disclosure was determined.

For visual disclosures, a freeze frame of the displayed disclosure was made and a measurement the height of the upper case lettering of the disclosure was taken and compared to the vertical dimensions of the television screen. This approach was intended to determine the proportion of the vertical screen dimension of the viewing surface on which the commercial and disclosure were presented. The placement on the screen of the visual disclosure were recorded for each commercial with disclosure. The temporal placement of disclosures within the commercial, i.e. within the first five seconds, within the last five seconds or between the first and last five seconds were recorded.

Finally, the essential context of the commercial in which the disclosure appeared was examined and noted.

Statistical Analysis Procedures

In order to examine the defined objectives of the research, the tabulated data were statistically analyzed to render pertinent findings. The data were examined for significant statistical differences with respect to distributions for (a) the incidence of affirmative disclosure and, given the presence of disclosure, (b) for differences, if any, for relevant factors pertaining to consumer information processing.

Consistent with the intended objectives of the research, the findings are presented in terms of the incidence and defining characteristics of disclosure both across and within product categories. Analytic perspectives are presented in terms of disclosure incidence, presentation, placement and temporal, as well as information characteristics. While a major objective of this research is to provide descriptive information with respect to relevant aspects of disclosure in cartoon programming, tests of significance accompany the data to provide a context for noting statistical differences, if any, where appropriate. Since the fundamental nature of the data is categorical, Chi-square analysis constitutes the relevant estimate of effect in all cases considered. Prior to reporting the findings of the study, a brief overview is provided of inter-judge reliability.

Subsequent to tabulation and prior to descriptive and statistical analysis of the data, inter-judge agreement was evaluated for consistency as to what constituted the presence of in-ad disclosure. Using an interjudge reliability measure approach involving qualitative judgments of nominal data (see Perrault and Leigh, 1989), measures of between-rater determination of IAD presence and other categorical assessments were in all instances beyond the 95% agreement level. These statistics suggest considerable uniformity and between-judge replicability relative to the identification of IAD by the three independent judges.

Prevalence Of Disclosure In Cartoon Programming

A primary variable of interest is the incidence of affirmative disclosure in children 's programming. For all occurrences of advertising, 84% of all commercials in the sample included one or more disclosures. A statistical test of disclosure for all commercials was significant (Chi-square = 90.687; a ¾ .000; df = 1), suggesting that disclosure is not equiprobable.

The number of disclosures occurring during identified commercials were also examined. For all commercials where IAD was present, 70% of commercials were characterized by one disclosure, 22% with two disclosures, and 7% with three disclosures; and 2% with four or more disclosures. A statistical test of the distribution of disclosures was significant at a ¾ .05.

For measures and test of significance relative to the frequency and incidence of affirmative disclosure, see Table 1.

Disclosure Presentation Characteristics

Several factors are relevant with regards to presentation of affirmative disclosure. Modality, number of print words, typesize, communication source, and length of dislosure are reported in the section that follows.

Presentation Format. With respect to presentation modality, Chi-square statistics indicate significant differences (22.256; a ¾ .000; df = 2) for presentation of disclosure messages via audio message only, visual message only, or both audio and visual disclosure concurrently. Examination of the data suggest that commercials are predominantly characterized by audio disclosure messages.

Number Of Words Visually Displayed. With respect to the number of print words presented by a visually displayed disclosure, the Chi-square value is not statistically significant (2.492; a „ .05; df = 1), indicating that commercials do not systematically vary in terms of the number of words displayed on the viewing screen. The data suggest that the number of commercials typically displaying more than four words per disclosure is approximately equivalent to those that show less than four.

Disclosure "Typesize". As previously noted, the size of on-screen disclosures was measured to determine relative "typesize." (Since the viewing context of both programming and "printed" disclosure message perception for an audience member varies by the size of the television viewing screen on which the transmitted broadcast is displayed, conventional typesize measurements are irrelevant, (i.e., the physical size of all elements is ultimately a direct function of the proportions of the television screen employed by the viewer). Consequently, in this study visually displayed messages were gauged by the height of capital letters relative to the vertical dimensions of the television screen and expressed as a percent value of the overall vertical screen dimension. The use of capital letterization as a standard of size measurement constitutes a conservative approach to type size calculation since upper case print is, by definition, larger than that of lower case type which predominates.) Disclosure differences are significant (Chi-square = 16.277; a ¾ .000; df = 1) with respect the copy lettering size of affirmative disclosure.

Source Of Verbal Disclosure. The source of audio disclosure was examined for source and length differences. Source categories examined were on-camera figures of either a celebrity or noncelebrity nature; a third source possibility was identified as an off-camera voice. The Chi-square statistic (349.265; a ¾ .000; df = 2) indicated significant differences, suggesting that disclosure sources were disproportionately represented by voice-over, noncelebrity spokespersons.

For frequencies and Chi-square values of disclosure presentation characteristics, see Table 2.

Disclosure Place And Duration Characteristics

Since broadcast disclosures can be characterized as occurring at discernible times and space in the viewing experience, it is meaningful to examine these aspects for differences in view of potential impact on attention and comprehension considerations on the part of commercial (and IAD) viewers. Specifically, visual placement of the disclosure on the television screen, temporal placement of the disclosure within the commercial communication, and the elapsed time of the disclosure itself will be reported for the product categories in the section that follows.

Visual Placement. Visual disclosures could potentially appear in a variety of places on the television screen. However, placement of visual disclosure messages were noted as to their location in terms of three regions: upper one-fourth, lower one-fourth, or middle half of the viewing area. Chi-square analysis for display differences was statistically significant (172.862; a ¾ .000; df = 2), indicating that systematic differences in disclosure placement were evident from the data.

Timing. With regards to the temporal placement of disclosure within the commercial itself, Chi-square test for significant differences disclosure durations was statistically significant (91.615; a „ .000; df = 2). Ad hoc examination of the data suggests that disclosure rarely occurs during the early periods of the commercial; instead, an almost equal likelihood of disclosure occurrence during the middle or late portions of the commercial is suggested.

Duration. The elapsed time of disclosure reflects the exposure duration of the disclosure message during the commercial. Chi-square test for differences between product categories was statistically significant (35.887; a „ .000; df = 1). Inspection of cross-tabulation frequencies show an inordinate proportion of disclosures occurring in less than three seconds and a comparatively small incidence of disclosure durations of greater than three seconds.

For frequencies and Chi-square values of disclosure place and duration characteristics, see Table 3.

Several information processing factors associated with broadcast disclosure are worthy of examination because of their potential importance to understanding the effect of IAD on target audiences and/or their effect upon impeding the processing of relevant information in the disclosure message. Processing factors of interest include type of disclosure information, audio and visual distractions, and visual context of the commercial occurring during the commercial. Each of these aspects will be reported briefly below.

Effective Reading Comprehension Rate. A Chi-square test for differences between two reading rates was performed. Reading rate required for effective comprehension was dichotomized at 150 words per minute (WPM). Test results were statistically significant (Chi-square = 17.723; a ¾ .001; df = 1), with effective reading rates below 150 WPM predominating.

Context Of Commercial. The sample of advertising messages in children 's programming were classified in terms of whether or not the immediate context of the commercial during disclosure distracting in nature. Since all disclosures were deemed by judge raters to occur exclusively in a dynamic context, a Chi-square test was not possible. In view of the distractions surrounding all disclosures, investigation of the type of distractions is called for. Below treatment of audio and visual distractions are examined.

Audio Distractions. Chi-square test for between-product differences with respect to audio distraction was significant (181.350; a „ .000; df = 1). The data show that music dominates as the most prevalent form of distraction during affirmative disclosure.

Movement Distractions. As with audio distractions, among test for differences are statistically significant (Chi-square = 48.017; a „ .000; df = 1) with respect to movement (versus no movement) alternatives. The data suggest that a preponderance of movement distractions occur for all disclosure commercials.

For frequencies and Chi-square values of disclosure information factors for between- and within-product categories, see Table 4, next page.

The empirical findings of this research provide detailed evidence of in-advertising disclosure as it occurs in cartoon broadcasts and there seems to be strong evidence that IAD directed to children is pervasive in this programming. Indeed, across both product categories affirmative disclosure dominates children 's programming with approximately 85% of commercials having at least one disclosure message. These findings suggest the occurrence of considerable

qualification of commercial communications to an especially vulnerable and unprepared population of consumers. Further, when disclose is present in commercials targeting children, over one quarter have more than more disclosure.

These relative proportions underscore affirmative disclosure to children as a significant public policy issue.

Beyond the simple frequency of disclosure occurrence, other trends are noteworthy with respect to presentation, place and duration, information factors. Each aspect will be briefly summarized.

Presentation Factors

First, the preponderance of affirmative disclosure occurs via solely one modality (i.e., either by audio or visual means only). For slightly more than one third of all commercials examined, disclosure was visual in nature. High proportions of single modality disclosures seem particularly troublesome in a medium that is fundamentally dynamic and multi-modality in nature. Indeed, non-IAD aspects of virtually all commercial messages are communicated by dramatization (verbal as well as graphic) as well as by means of auditory cues. In contrast to a more extensive use of communication means, the impact of disclosure via single sensory modality and the ability of children to comprehend such is highly questionable.

In general, visual disclosures appear to be characterized by a prominence that is not commensurate with their implicit importance and relevance to product prospects. For all disclosure commercials, 43% of disclosures display more than four words. The opportunity of consumers to readily attend to visual messages appears to be further diminished by message "typesize." Visual disclosures seem problematicin that virtually two-thirds of both product classes are smaller than 5% of the vertical screen height of the relevant viewing dimension. It is arguable that apart from other processing considerations (e.g., duration of exposure, intensity of stimulus, etc.), audience viewing position relative to the television screen typically prohibits reading perception of messages with such small lettering.

A large proportion of informational sources vis-à-vis affirmative disclosure emanate from off-camera voices (i.e., 90% across both products categories). For the effective communication of disclosure information this appears to be an unusual presentation format in that television, as a visual medium, calls for on-screen presentation of stimuli for likelihood of maximum effectiveness.

Placement Factors

In terms of message placement, a dominant proportion of in-advertising disclosures are placed in lower regions of a viewing area. This contrasts with the placement of unequivocally positive promotional messages of a visual nature in the mid- to upper-portions of the television screen. Further, time placement of disclosure in children 's advertising occurs during the middle or later period of the commercial message; rarely does disclosure transpire at the outset of the commercial message. This being the case, it appears that presentation of IAD serves a secondary and, at best, supplemental purpose, the function of which is to modify or "correct" a previously effected expectation advanced by the commercial message itself.

An arguably dramatic aspect of IAD appears to be the limited time exposure of disclosures. For disclosure relative to all disclosure commercials, approximately 80% transpire in less than 3 seconds less than 10% of a typical commercial lasting for 30-seconds. In post hoc analysis, calculation of effective reading rates show that product advertising disclosures require reading comprehension in excess of 150 words per minute for more than 30% of the commercial messages in the study, representing a particularly formidable rate for many grade school television viewers (Mullis, Campbell, and Farstrup, 1993). Pre-school viewers, for all practical purposes, can be assumed to be incapable of processing and comprehending print disclosures.

Information Factors

The context of all disclosures appears to be dynamic in nature hardly surprising, given the medium. The occurrence of a dynamic advertisement, however, suggests a potentially distracting context for the effective communication of disclosure messages. A preponderance of audio distractions are musical in nature (94%). Movement distractions are present in approximately three-quarters of commercials with disclosure.

In summary, affirmative disclosure to children appears to dominate in advertising to young viewers. In addition, disclosure such as it is, seems to be obscured in nature and fleeting when present, and, thus, generally unfavorable to effective processing by audience targets. These data provide substantial empirical evidence that disclosure to children merits further scholarly and policy attention.

The apparent dominance of IADs in children 's advertising suggests that this is, indeed, a topic worthy of further examination and research by behavioral scientists. Admittedly, children represent a group of consumers which the FTC deems worthy of special "protection." Nonetheless, children constitute a consumer interest group that are particularly vulnerable to abuse. Although it may be a slight overstatement to argue that children do not have legal "standing" compared to individuals of majority age, fairness to this class in terms of economic and commercial transactions is clearly an honorable social ideal. This is the case for several reasons. First, social expectations of firms producing children 's goods and services implicitly call for the ethical treatment of children 's economic activities. Simply because children represent a disadvantaged constituency (in economic, if not legal, terms) does not confer the right to producers to exploit this vulnerability. To the degree that children make expenditures out of their own savings, it is likely that the proportion of "disposable" income for any given expenditure by a child is substantial compared to any likely counter-part purchase by an adult.

Second, as noted previously, expenditures for children 's wants by children themselves or on their behalf by others in the product categories examined is considerable. Society 's economic system is premised on equitable treatment of buyers and fair-play in the search for and transaction of goods and services with customers. That firms could induce transactions and amass wealth by questionable or deceptive practices violates even the most broadly defined sense of fair play and competition. It would appear that the disclosures noted in this research, while technically capable of transmitting useful information, when compared to the ability of IADs to do so with regard to children is highly questionable. Instead, it seems more likely that IADs may potentially convey useful information, if at all, to an adult audience. In view of single modality presentation, the inability of many young viewers to either read or attend audially, if at all, with the rapidity required to process IAD presented with the brevity noted here is highly suspect. The instrusiveness of disclosure appears to be far below that of the surrounding commercial messages. Further, the effectiveness of such information transmissions assumes a perceptual vigilance as well as a capacity to comprehend on the part of young viewers that is tenuous, at best.

Finally, young consumers of advertising first, and subsequently, goods and services eventually become full participants in the economic system. Early advertising and ensuing transactional practices involving children represent socialization events that educate prospective consumers about the nature of the marketing system. To the degree that young buyers are mislead or treated deceptively, their view of marketing institutions in the economic system as mature consumers is affected and potentially becomes distorted and dysfunctional. Thus, in the light of the research findings, affirmative disclosure to children represents an important and worthy subject of further study.

An affirmative disclosure is aimed at preventing consumer deception. Disclosures are theoretically intended to provide consumers with more, or "better," information that they may need to make sound purchase decisions. Unfortunately, regulators have paid more attention to intent than to effectiveness in requiring disclosures (Wilkie, 1987). Given the extremely high incidence of affirmative disclosure in children 's television advertising, the findings of this research underscore the importance of further study to examine the effects if any of IAD on viewers of children 's programming. In view of the pervasive nature and increasing incidence of disclosure in commercials directed to young consumers, further publi policy attention and is clearly warranted. The examination of several issues is called for.

First, more research is needed with respect to consumer comprehension of disclosure messages. A fundamental question in this regard is: to whom is the disclosure directed, child or adult? While the programming content may be directed to children, assumptions regarding the role and impact of disclosures may not be appropriate for this audience in the same manner it may ostensibly serve a more mature set of viewers. The content of the commercial is arguably focused on children to stimulate product interest rather than on adults who may actually purchase the product for the child. However, the nature of IADs vis-à-vis information processing-related properties, i.e., typesize, implicit comprehension opportunity, etc., appear to represent disclosure, under most favorable assumptions, to adults. This conclusion is supported by evidence that effective processing of information of reported IADs is dependent on perceptual vigilance of which only adults, at best, are capable. For a variety of reasons, this is a logical conclusion in that that IADs appear to be spoken rapidly and anonymously, demand excellent perceptual skills, are printed in small type, may occur in the context of a variety of distracting elements, etc.

Second, insofar as IADs may be directed to children, their effectiveness at providing relevant information needs to be determined. What seems to be lacking regarding disclosure to children is whether or not comprehension of a such a message holds any value or importance to a child and his or her consumption decision process. Stated differently, is a child more likely to make better or different purchase decision if he or she understands a disclosure message? For a range of ages, children must rely on a parent or adult to purchase a product. Consequently, a relevant issue may be whether a child has any concerns, for example, about product prices, advisory notices, restrictions, or transactional information? When a child asks an adult for an advertised product seen in a commercial, the burden or responsibility to purchase and "assemble" all the necessary parts are typically assumed by the adult and it thus becomes the responsibility of the adult to satisfy the child's want for that product. Nonetheless, even this involvement by an adult does not address the issue of a child 's holding certain expectations about that product based on the message received while viewing and contemplating the commercial. What is called for is a better understanding of the child's expectations and a determination if effective impact occurs from the inclusion of relevant affirmative disclosures as currently presented.

Public policy implications here noted previously focus on the importance of consumers purchasing what they intend or expect to purchase based upon advertising. The deceptive effects of such communications revolves primarily on materiality with respect to purchase decisions. Although materiality is one requirement to establishing deception, consumer expectations and intentions regarding product performance are presumably shaped by the claim(s) conveyed by the ad, including, presumably, the IAD. Thus, a significant discussion (and, by implication, research focus) would appear to be what claim(s) do the young target consumers take away from commercials and do IADs in those ads affect those impressions, not only with respect to purchase but also to product use.

It is also likely that certain types of disclosure may have greater relevance, or importance, to some children based on age. For example, a commercial may show certain accessories to an offering being used in the advertising communication with a disclosure stating that the accessories are not available for sale. Assuming effective disclosure, the critical issue here is whether the child 's comprehension of the disclosure is affected by age and, consequently, whether this comprehension would impact his or her interest toward the product. Consequently, further research identifying what is "material" in advertising for different consumer groups (i.e., children of differing ages) is needed. Beyond examination of mere consumer comprehension of disclosures, the focus should move to what is persuasive to young consumers in advertising and what messages are material with respect to buying and use decisions. This research provides ample evidence that affirmative disclosure occurs at a sufficiently high rate of incidence to examine these issues more carefully and systematically.

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