ANALYSIS OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH AND PRACTICE NEEDS IN A NEW GLOBAL ECONOMIC AND MARKET CONVERGENCE

Dr. Augustine Ihator, Western Kentucky University

This study carefully describes and analyzes the global political, economic, and social transformation that has taken place since the demise of communism, and the concomitant business expansion. It carefully reviews the role of the United States, as the citadel of capitalism, in the new global economic and decontrolled market convergence.

It also analyzes the cultural, historical, and communication differences between nations, and points out the potential for misunderstanding and unintended and undesired consequences if the mindset and worldviews of the world societies are not fully known.

The study prescribes the following in order that international public relations practitioners be able to successfully interact with the relevant global publics: (1) The sharing of international public relations practice experience and research results between corporations, government, and researchers; (2) Extensive research on the various aspects of world cultures and international public relations, economics and business; (3) Genuine interest by corporations and government to fund research projects; and (4) Creation of curriculums at both undergraduate and graduate levels by colleges and universities which focus on international public relations, multiculturalism at national and global levels, and international politics and relations. The courses may be interdisciplinary in nature, ranging from foreign languages, comparative law-ethics, history, to mass/interpersonal communications.

This is a descriptive, analytical, and prescriptive study of international public relations in an era devoid of ideological conflict between West and East, and the cultural chasm between North and South. The study provides an overview of the contemporary political and economic world and insights on cultural, mass media structure and practice differences. It stresses the need for greater knowledge and understanding of world's cultures and effective international public relations through research in order to meet the business needs of multinational corporations and other organizations operating internationally.

Recent Global Political, Economic, and Business Changes

The collapse of communism and its centrally planned and controlled economy, reunification of Europe, the adoption of Western political and economic culture by emerging countries of Africa and South America, have altered the political and economic landscape of the world. Lacking viable alternatives, many nations of the world are now turning to a pluralistic system of government and the concomitant economic and social systems. Many countries, especially in the Third World and Eastern Europe, are now in the early stages of pluralistic government and open market systems.

The United States remains the bastion of free market system. The whole world, especially the emerging countries, looks up to it as a shinning hill of capitalism. A number of surveys commissioned by the United States Information Agency (USIA) which tracked the political, economic, and media changes in Eastern European countries, previously under the Soviet bloc, came to the following conclusions, among others: Most Eastern Europeans believe a free market economy is essential to their economic development and support privatization; they feel economic reform is the most urgent task facing their countries; and they are very pro-American and have a highly favorable attitude toward the United States. (Hiebert, 1992, p. 179).

The result of this new political and economic atmosphere is decontrolled market, keen competition, rapid privatization of economic activities, and internationalization of technology, investment, and production.

Western economic, financial, and business culture has now gone global, and enhanced global business activity is now leading to a redistribution of global gross domestic product (GDP). According to the 1997 annual report of the World Bank, "developing countries will double their share of global GDP to account for nearly a third of global output by 2020." (The Economist, 1997). The report added that "the big five developing countries: China, India, Brazil, Indonesia, and Russia, will grab an even larger chunk of exports, rising from nine percent in 1992 to 22 percent in 2020."

Though there may be undertows and riptides in today's global society, there now exists more than ever before an emerging convergence of worldview and global common interest. The enduring strength and features of Western form of democracy, and Adam Smith's classical free market economic principles are no more under serious questioning by critics and proponents of centrally planned economy.

More than one hundred years ago, a famous French philosopher, Auguste Comte, noted the symbiotic relationship between business and public relations. He wrote: "A business enterprise must be open, like a glass house, for all to see. It is the duty of businessmen, who are entrusted with a legitimate power, to enlighten public opinion on their activities and trends." (Cutlip and Center, 1971, p.644).

John W. Hill, a pioneer in developing international public relations practice in the 1950s, postulated that the following factors create a fertile ground for the germination of effective public relations: (1) A stable and democratic government; (2) A political and economic system that allows the development of private enterprise and encourages competition in many fields of endeavor; and (3) The existence of prosperous and thoroughly independent media, over which the government has a minimum of control. (Cutlip and Center, 1971, p. 637-638).

With the rapid global economic and business growth, and keen competition between nations, there is need for effective public relations with the global publics. Trained international public relations practitioners and communicators are then needed to implement programs which effectively communicate, create and nurture relationships with the relevant global publics in order to gain business advantage over other international competitors.

In the new political, business, and economic culture, public relations practice becomes a necessity, not an option. Organizations, even those which traditionally have not stepped offshore to expand business, are now looking at the various global constituencies to create business relationships in order to expand. Market competition now goes beyond national boundaries and public relations has to undertake its traditional communication functions to help businesses gain extra advantage over other corporations operating internationally. The integration of economies and markets in Europe through the European Union, and the planned use of a single currency, even means that the United States has to be ever creative to keep its turf in the global trade.

As the only remaining superpower, the United States needs to lead in this new political, economic, and business milieu. The country still leads in global economic output and maintains the general lead in technological innovation, scientific power, investment dollars, and graduate and professional education. The country remains the largest market in the world for the exports of developed and emerging nations, and conversely, the United States highly depends on other nations to maintain its economic strength and standard of living. "One in ten American industrial workers are employed by foreign-owned companies......Fifty percent of the purchases by U.S. consumers are from non-U.S. companies. Conversely, there are dozens of America's largest firms that sell more overseas than they do in their domestic market". (Epley, 1992, p. 110). Giant companies like the Coca Cola Company and the General Motors Corporation have made more profits overseas than in the domestic market.

The United States needs to fully understand this new world order. While many nations may be emulating the United States' governmental and economic systems, the country's government, businesses and public relations practitioners have not yet adequately studied and understood the cultural, technological, historical, and mass media differences in the world. While the present business orientation may be global in outlook, each market has its own heart beat, unique local need and taste. Thinking globally requires the knowledge of multiculturalism and across border marketing and public relations culture. It demands a different mind set, complex reality, and understanding of new communication concepts, models and paradigms. There is urgent need for a systematic study and understanding of the emerging new world.

Global economic and business knowledge is needed because very few companies, big or small, are now purely domestic. Small businesses which have traditionally been the economic engine of the United States are also going global in order to survive in the new very competitive business climate. The roaring United States economic boom in the 1990s has been due, to a large extent, on the ingenuity of small businesses, expanding global market, cheaper global sources of supplies, low inflation, economic, monetary and financial policies of the government, and the substantial reduction of the country's budget deficit, among others.

"More than 70 million new jobs have been created in America since 1980, a stunning 60 percent of the work force, while some 40 million were lost by attrition. The net job creation has been 32.3 million - about eight times the number of new jobs created in Europe despite Europe's larger population and economy." (Zuckerman, 1997, p. 80). "No wonder we dominate the global economic high ground as the foremost supplier of brain and muscle," added Zuckerman (1997, p. 80). Other countries are actively studying and emulating the U.S. economic, market, monetary, and financial paradigms.

Due to the expanded world-wide outreach, a U.S. company has now to consider its competitive advantage both inside and outside the country because it would be competing against both domestic and foreign markets. To succeed therefore, the public relations, marketing, and advertising strategies have to be global, with the recognition of the different cultural, political, social, and economic differences. Unlike before when companies operated primarily on a domestic level with ethnocentric perspective, they now have to care for product users who may be several miles removed from the producers and their business culture.

The recent internationalization of production has led to the setting up of the so-called world market factories in various global centers. Multinational companies are motivated to set up production sites overseas in order to minimize business cost and maximize profit. The recent trend of creating free trade blocs has further encouraged this rapid global business and economic expansion.

Understanding the world's culture, business and communication style is now needed more than ever before by corporations of various sizes. Small businesses which historically have operated only on the domestic level are now frantically seeking help to do business abroad. For example, Auburn Leather, the maker of Western saddlery and other leather products has been profitably existing since the company's founding in Logan County of Kentucky in 1863. As the market for leather shoe laces has migrated from Kentucky to the Pacific Rim, Auburn Leather was forced to look overseas to stay in business. Five years later, the small Kentucky business now sends its leather products to more than 20 countries. (Wolfe, 1997, p.10-A). In the same report, Wolfe also pointed out that Kentucky exports increased by 16 percent to $6.9 billion in 1996 - from $5.9 billion in 1995 and that ranked Kentucky slightly better than middle of the pack - 23rd among the 50 states and the District of Columbia - in total exports. "Not bad for a comparatively small state more accustomed to the lower echelon of any national ranking," added Wolfe.

A business enterprise centered on only one state or nation can not survive for long; it has to have a global outreach for sustenance and viability. Jay Tannon, former chairman of the Kentucky World Trade Center group pointed out that "increasingly small companies are coming to grips with the need to find global customers." (Wolfe, 1997, p.10-A). "If you don't do it, you don't have the economics of scale that your competitors in Japan and Germany and Ohio and Tennessee have. Either you compete with them or you sit back and wait to become obsolete," added Tannon. "Small companies may not realize they are competing internationally even if they sell only domestically. That's because customers can buy many of the same products overseas," Mary Beth Cordy, international trade director for the Economic Development Cabinet in Kentucky pointed out. (Wolfe, 1997, p. 10-A). "Whether one is examining the situation from a business, governmental or academic perspective, the world has gone from regional to national to international to multinational relationships and is going global." (Sommerness and Beaman, 1994, p. 89).

In the new global political, economic, and business order, no nation can afford to remain an island. The United States economy and business are now married to that of the world. "Whether you like it or not, we're part of the world. It's not optional. We have important economic ties. Four million American jobs depend on exports to developing countries. Half of the growth of our gross domestic product and 40 percent of the growth in world trade depends on developing countries," stated the head of the World Bank, James Wolfensohn.Parade Magazine, 1997, p. 7) "Quite apart from economic values, we stand for something. We need to provide moral values and leadership," added the World Bank leader.

The Need to Enhance International Public Relations
Research and Practice

The effective practice of, and research on, international public relations have not kept pace with the post-Communist era's political, economic, and business realities. Unless serious efforts are made to fully understand, effectively communicate with, and relate to the world-wide consumer audiences, United States businesses may be at a disadvantage to successfully compete in the new global market place. "The public relations practitioner who has never left home will be at a disadvantage," said James Dowling, president and chief executive officer of Burson-Marsteller (Sommerness & Beaman, 1994, p. 89-90). "International public relations has lagged behind the rise of multinational corporations and only recently has shown to be an invaluable tool in today's competitive world market. Public relations, an industry unique to the United States ten years ago, has gone the way of most industries: global." (Burk, 1994, p. 40).

Japanese and European corporations are actively exploring and exploiting

the present world-wide business opportunities. United States corporations may not be able to gain their fair share of the global business if they do not fully understand and appreciate today's global realities. Due to the colonial association and cultural affinity with their former colonies, some European countries have extra advantage in knowing some emerging countries' political, communication, and business cultures. This is buttressed by the active support of businesses by European governments through tax advantages and foreign representation. These advantages often lead to more successful business deals by European multinational corporations.

The United States public relations practice and experience cannot be exactly exported abroad. Robert Dilenschneider, chief executive officer of Hill and Knowlton pointed out that public relations in the international scene is in many ways more sophisticated than the domestic one, and added that the link between public affairs and public relations abroad is much deeper and the channels for reaching special interest groups much more focused. (Epley, 1992, p. 112).

Public relations practitioners in the United States are therefore groping for genuine answers to international public relations and communication problems. "Business will continue to globalize, and smart managers recognize the worldwide risks and opportunities. Management expects us to be strong both globally and locally," said Robert Dilenschneider. (Sommerness & Beaman, 1994, p. 89-90).

Due to cultural, political, and mass media differences between nations, the United States public relations practice, theories, models, and paradigms may be ineffective in other countries. There are many constraints abroad. The U. S. practitioner's meaning of strategic public relations management and corporate social responsibility may be irrelevant across the border. The meaning and functions of, and tool for, public relations may not be similar. Global thinking requires a different frame of mind and focus because of the varied perceptions, worldviews and traditions involved.

There is urgent need, therefore, for the sharing of global public relations experience and case studies and, most importantly, research that would lead to the formulation of valid theories, models, and paradigms. Research in public relations with other societies is lacking. W. Timothy Coombs (1995) survey of public relations articles in scholarly journals in an eleven-year period discovered a very slow pace for the internationalizing of public relations research. "The vast majority of the published articles (over 90 percent) make no reference to culture or to countries other than the United States. Over the eleven-year period, there appears to be no clear trend toward increasing the percent of international, cultural, or cross-cultural articles". (Coombs, 1995). In Sommerness and Beaman (1994, p. 92-93) survey of courses offered by colleges and universities listed in the 1989 journalism directory, published by the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, and other colleges and universities, totaling 119 institutions, one university offered an international communication course in a journalism program, the purpose, according to the catalog descriptions, being to help prospective journalists learn international newsgathering techniques. Of all the schools that Sommerness and Beaman (1994, p. 92-93) surveyed, only Northern Arizona University School of Communication offered what was clearly a course in international public relations. Public relations curriculums and research programs in the U.S. colleges and universities lack global perspective.

Having regard to the fact that the United States spearheaded the modern practice of, and research in, public relations, it is important that it keeps the lead. The first public relations college course was taught at New York University in 1923 by Edward L. Bernays who coined the term, "public relations counsel" in the first book on public relations,Crystallizing Public Opinion published the same year. (Cutlip, Center, Broom, 1994, p. 112).

Besides England, public relations as a management concept is new in Europe. According to Cutlip and Center (1971, p. 639-646), it was unknown in Germany up till about the early 1950s and the idea was also generally unknown in Belgium before 1952; in Italy public relations was not fully recognized at the end of the Second World War. Cutlip and Center (1971, p. 639-646) added that historically, the French climate was hostile to both the concept and practice. Public relations practice in Japan grew concomitantly with the industrial growth after the Second World War.

Emerging nations, including the giant China, are emulating United States public relations practice and models. Professionals from the United States are sometimes invited by developing nations to teach Western type of public relations. David Ritchey, associate professor of public relations at the University of Akron, who was invited in May 1997 to teach at Renmin University was told by his Chinese host that he was the first to teach Western-style public relations class in China, and the host pointed out that other schools in China offered public relations courses, but they were Chinese-style, and government-oriented in nature. (Ritchey, 1997, p. 16). "China's growing population presents the biggest potential market in the world. With evolving government policies, China and its people are a prime target for quality public relations," David Ritchey stressed.

The task of fully understanding other nations' culture, business practice, and mass media infrastructure has to be successfully carried out through close collaboration between corporations and the world of academia. This goal may be achieved through the following avenues: (1) The sharing of international public relations practice experience and research results between corporations, government, and researchers; (2) Extensive research on the various aspects of world cultures and international public relations, economics, and business. This would lead to the formulation of theories, creative models, and paradigms; (3) Genuine interest by corporations and government to fund research projects; (4) Creation of curriculums at both undergraduate and graduate levels by colleges and universities which focus on international public relations, multiculturalism at the national and global levels and international politics and relations. The courses may be inter disciplinary in nature, ranging from foreign languages, comparative law-ethics, history, to mass/interpersonal communications.

Bonita Neff (1991) has called for the establishment of a system for collecting case studies on international public relations need to be followed up with analysis by those who understand the communication process of current methodologies to further study the implications and nuances of the cases submitted.

The Need for Understanding Differences in Culture and Worldviews

The most important element that separates nations or groups of people is culture. A group of individuals has certain common attitudes and behavior which make them different from others because of collective past experience that comes from living in close proximity. Communities and nations over time acquire certain habits, develop their worldviews, and societal norms and mores. They hang on to certain belief systems that are perceived to have been helpful in defining, interpreting, and putting meaning to the universe and human experience. People's meaning and expectations of life, material needs and wants, and the relationship between the physical and spiritual existence may be viewed differently.

Shannon and Weaver (1996, p. 158-159) stated that there are three levels of communications problems: (1) technical problems concern the accuracy of message transference from sender to receiver of sets of symbols; (2) semantic problems relate to the identity, or satisfactory close approximation, in the interpretation of meaning by the receiver, as compared with the intended meaning of the sender; and (3) effectiveness problems are concerned with the success with which the meaning conveyed to the receivers leads to the desired conduct on the their part. These communication problems are even magnified when dealing with nations or peoples with historical, sociological, political, economic, and religious differences. Different communication symbols, signals, and channels which often come from different life experiences of the message encoder and decoder sometimes lead to unintended and undesired cognitive (knowledge, awareness) and affective (feeling, attitude) outcomes.

Referring to communication with heterogenous groups, through the mass media, James W. Carey (1996, p. 233) argued that any form of communication is not simply about the transmission of information from a source to a receiver; but rather that "mass communication is a ritual process, involving the shared construction of the patterns of social behavior, social interaction, and social significance." In explaining the ritual view of communication, Carey (1996, p.236) added that "communication is linked to terms such as 'sharing', 'participation', 'association', 'fellowship', and the 'possession of a common faith.'"

According to Lane, DiStefano, Maznevski (1997, p. 25-26), "when one interacts with people from very different backgrounds - people who have been exposed to different historical and social development, who speak different languages and have different values, and who see and interpret events and behavior differently - it is easy to see that the potential for misunderstanding, conflict, and unintended consequences exists," and pointed out that "major problems of intercultural communication occur in perception and in attribution of meaning."

Enhanced rapid diffusion of news and information across the globe because of advanced media technologies, such as computers, satellites, microwaves, fiber optics and transatlantic cable wiring, have more than ever before turned the world into a "global village" with diverse constituencies. This makes communication with the relevant global publics even more complex. Old communication tools and styles may no longer be effective in the present international arena.Therefore, Western public relations practitioners and journalists may be experiencing the passing of "dominant paradigms." Western traditional intellectualism, worldviews, and values may be irrelevant outside the Western cultures' purview. Lack of or shallow understanding of communication nuances among and between the various world's cultures sometimes have led to big public relations disaster.

Maya Hu-Chan, president of Asian communication professionals in San Diego, pointed out that "for Asians, public displays of emotion are generally not accepted" and advised practitioners to stick to the facts. (Jackson, 1997, p. 2). In Asia, he cautioned against references to death in speeches and writing, and the use of colloquialisms and slangs.

There are historical examples of unintended cultural faux pax by corporations with unanticipated and undesired consequences. Coca-Cola is one of the major multinational corporations that have been globally operating for several years and has been, for the most part, successful in the various countries. The company has set examples in being culturally sensitive in its world-wide business. However, during the 1994 World Soccer Cup, Coca-Cola printed the flag of Saudi Arabia on its cans. The flag contains sacred words in Arabic that Muslims believe should be treated with respect and definitely should not appear on throw-away packaging. (Beveridge, 1997, p. 9).

Communication style, and public relations or advertising campaigns that may be perfectly error free in one society, may create havoc in another. What may be completely ethical and even legal in one nation may not necessarily be so in others. There may even be marked communication style differences within one nation. In the United States, for example, some minority groups have always complained of lack of understanding by corporations of their culture, and some companies have even been accused of blatant racism. Just as at the global level, there is subtle but certain population shift in the United States. "The U.S. won't have any racial or ethnic majority at some point between 2050 and 2100." (Lawrence, 1997, p. 6A). It may, therefore, be necessary to simultaneously study multiculturalism and communication styles at both national and international levels if practitioners expect to effectively communicate with their relevant 21st century publics.

In understanding world's culture, it is also necessary to look at the various stages of societal evolution. During the last 200 years, human social and technological development may be placed in the following categories: agricultural, industrial, and information age. While many Western countries have already made the transition from the agricultural to the modern information age, many Third World countries are just making the transition from agricultural to industrial age. Some are still in the agricultural age and are trying to leapfrog to the information age and the access ramp may not be easy. Therefore, these social, historical, economic, cultural, and technological differences between nations may be recognized in order to effectively practice global public relations.

Multicultural, as opposed to the unicultural public relations, has to be recognized and carefully studied in the present global reality. Stephen P. Banks (1995, p. 21) defines multicultural public relations "as the management of formal communication between organizations and their relevant publics to create and maintain communities of interest and action that favor the organization, taking full account of the normal human variation in the systems of meaning by which groups understand and enact their everyday lives." In some of Banks (1995, p. 39) propositions of the social-interpretive theory for multicultural public relations, he stated that "public relations communication is interpreted within the cultural contexts of recipients, not sources; and that "all communication proposes identities for participants."

As it may be too costly or even not feasible to study cultures of the world at micro level, it may be prudent to clearly identify and isolate broad cultural categories, which may be termed 'human system' for effective global public relations research and practice. The human systems may be placed in the following categories for easy identification and classification: continents, regions of continents, countries, and culture groups within countries. (Nathanson, 1994, p.35). Some cultures have been classified, among others, as follows: patriarchal-matriarchal; agriculturalistic-industrialistic; collectivistic-individualistic; spiritualistic-materialistic; religious-secular; extended family-nuclear family; masculinity-femininity; matrilinealism-patrilinealism; authoritarian-democracy; monochronic-polychronic; inner oriented-outer oriented; hierarchical-egalitarian, and universalism-ethnocentrism. (Nathanson, 1994, p. 35-55).

Other areas where research is needed in order to avoid serious public relations blunders abroad is corporate social responsibility and professional ethics. Their definitions and practice overseas have to be considered within the cultural, political, and social norms of a particular nation. In a rapidly expanding global market, international public relations practitioners are groping for answers.

In the United States, corporate social responsibility is service to the society at both individual and corporate levels. According to Cutlip, Center, Broom (1994, p. 132), "it also means that associations of professionals exercise collective power as moral agents and watchdogs for the betterment of society." In economically and politically emerging countries, still struggling with embryonic democracy, and sometimes with the constant fear of coup d'etat, practitioners going beyond the traditional corporate operations and goal to serve as "moral agents" and "watchdogs" or "lapdogs" for some perceived oppressed citizens, may not be welcomed by the ruling class. In some Third World countries, governments view public relations function as a nation-building tool. Therefore, any domestic or foreign public relations practitioners who behave contrary to government's social control expectation, may soon be walking on troubled water.

What of public relations professional ethics abroad? Whose ethics anyway? Are there universal ethics that could be practiced across the border? While Western ethics may have their origin in Judeo-Christian religions, many countries draw their moral principles through the Koran. Is there a symbiotic relationship between the religions that may lead to the formulation and acceptance of universal codes of public relations professional ethics? Is there even a desire and possibility of ethical universalism? Can a potpourri of ethics be created from which public relations practitioners could choose based on situation or specific cultural and/or social milieu?

Practical experience of multinational corporations that have been operating abroad for several years, and most importantly, research, may provide answers. "With increased globalization in all aspects of social life, it is essential for practitioners to engage in ongoing discussions about ethical practice with international colleagues. While all may not agree to a specific ethics 'code,' there might be agreement to a set of principles that contain enough ambiguity to allow for differing interpretations and practices." (Roth, Hunt, Stavropoulos, Babik, 1996, p. 151-152).

As culture dictates the way individuals and nations communicate, view the world and their place in it, it is crucial that international public relations practitioners fully understand the audience of the world they are working to reach.

Despite the ongoing global political, economic, and market convergence, each nation still has and keeps its culture and the way it relates to others.

The Need for Understanding National Communication Styles
and Media Structure, Operation, and Practice

The primary role of public relations practitioners is to create and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with the relevant publics. To achieve their goal, practitioners inform, interpret organizational goals for, and influence the public. Their duties also include promoting and helping the public understand the mission and social responsibility of the organization they represent.

To effectively carry out the above duties and achieve the desired goals, the knowledge of reliable information acquisition and delivery systems and communication styles of the target publics are needed. While mass media is often successfully used by practitioners in the West to communicate with the relevant audiences, the experience may not necessarily be replicated abroad.

The definition, role, and functions of mass media and news differ between nations, including media structure, operations, and practice. While the media may be considered as the Fourth Estate in the United States and watchdog on behalf of citizens, in many countries, it may be the opposite case. Media dances to the tune of the government. Any deviation from a stance taken by the government may be seen as destructive to national interest and agenda. Even in some countries with relative press freedom, there may be self censorship because substantial advertising revenue is generated through government sources.

In many developing societies, media is often used by the government as a tool for national development. Therefore, contradicting viewpoints from mass media are discouraged, and sometimes illegal. Invoking pseudo-Confucianism, the Singapore government admonished the press to be within the "virtuous cycle of consensus politics." The Information and Arts Minister, George Yeo, warned Singaporeans and the press not to presume that they can talk as if "equal to those in authority." (Seow, 1995, p. 77-81).

In the United States, news reporting and editorial writing roles are separate. The jobs are clearly defined. In European journalism, one person can at the same time report a story and write an editorial comment on the same subject. "U.S. journalism imposes stronger measures to avoid subjective beliefs and preferences of individual reporters dominating the news....whereas in most European countries the individual journalist's subjective views are allowed to make their way through into media content." (Donsbach, 1995, p. 28).

The executive summary of a comparative international theory project, which involved scholars from universities in Western Europe, China, Russia, and the United States reported that because different peoples have different histories, the relationship of public relations to government, marketing, religion and the press differs from culture to culture. Countries such as the United States, with great experience using public relations to promote products or organizations, the executive summary continued, have difficulty exchanging knowledge with countries with more experience in using it as a tool for national development or public health. (Botan, 1992, p. 157-58).

Lack of diverse channels of mass communication in many countries, and press freedom constraints by governments pose challenges to international public relations practitioners. In many countries, the multiplicity of cultures and linguistic groupings, illiteracy, lack of basic infrastructures, even exacerbate mass communication problems. India is a classic example with about 72 different languages spoken by at least 100,000 persons each. National wire news service must be translated for each of the vernacular newspapers, and government agricultural and community development information must either be decentralized or translated at each state or district level. (Schramm, 1970, p. 155). In such a situation sending out a news release demands some creativity and extensive planning.

While practitioners from Western countries consider the various mass media effects studies, such as the cultivation, social learning, and limited effects theories to plan successful campaigns in their home countries, the application of these theories and models may not be successful across the border. General communication patterns - both mass and interpersonal - are different. In Ghana, for example, dance, songs, and storytelling have been among the important channels for conducting public communication campaigns in towns. (Riley, 1991, p. 156).

In a society with limited media channels and agrarian in nature, the two step-flow theory may sometimes be more relevant. The influence and social role of opinion makers and leaders may be more credible and relied on than the system's mass media. Immediate and extended family communication plays a vital role in many developing societies. Tribal chiefs and their lieutenants organize and lead community rituals and other group cohesion and culture sustenance activities.

In the United States, news may be regarded as a report of a current event. (Halberstam, 1992, p. 11). In some countries, news may be a state of affairs of a future or past experienced event. Also some news gathering techniques and media relations practice overseas may seem unusual and/or unethical by United States practitioners. For example, "the Japanese culture doesn't like direct confrontation during press conferences. This is seen as disrespectful. Direct confrontation in the Japanese culture takes place in interpersonal settings not during public communication events. Thus the American press can be considered very rude to pursue their usual tough questioning following a presentation by a Japanese company." (Neff, 1990).

In some countries, for news and information to be placed, journalists are bribed - the pump has to be primed. To practitioners used to the United States professional culture, this practice goes against the codes of ethics of the Public Relations Society of America. In such a situation, an unprepared international public relations practitioner may experience some cultural shocks, semiotic problems, and perhaps practice mishaps.

The First Amendment of the United States Constitution which declares that Congress shall make no law abridging freedom of speech or of the press, and the Freedom of Information Act, a Federal statute mandating open access to public records, are the cornerstone of American journalism. In some societies, like the Arabs', religious sources of law may be the only ones recognized and relevant than socially created statutes and laws.

The legal, political, and cultural definition and interpretation of freedom of speech or of the press in some societies may, therefore, be at variance with those in the West. American media education and practice and public relations experience and case studies may not have much practical utility or meaning across the border. Every press or public relations practice is local in nature and imported brands may be inappropriate and ineffective.

It becomes very important, therefore, that sustained research efforts be made to start understanding the needed communication and public relations tools and styles in order to effectively interact with the various global audiences.

Conclusion

Spread of democratic form of government, free economic and market systems, human migration, technological transfer, and free capital flow across financial markets, have transformed the world. United States exports overseas has increased by 40 percent since 1993, and leading firms like Microsoft, Exxon, IBM, and Coca-Cola now earn more than half of their revenue abroad. (Gergen, 1997, p. 112). These elements have created a fertile ground for enhanced global business and public relations.

Unfortunately, serious efforts have not been made, from private and government sectors, to fully comprehend the New World of today in order to effectively communicate with it. Even politicians have not yet realized the significance of the new era, the magnitude of business and political opportunities, and the need to be familiar with the cultures of the world. According to The National Security Caucus Foundation in Washington, one third of today's Senate and House members do not even have passports to travel overseas. (Gergen, 1997, p. 112).

It is often assumed that the rest of the world would automatically embrace United States' values and culture because it is the only remaining super power. Also, English is often assumed to be a universal language. Ninety two percent of the world's 5.9 billion consumers do not speak or read English; and English is just one of 7,600 languages worldwide, according to Edward Poulin (1997) of MediaSync International. Poulin (1997) added that corporations "can't build business relationships within a global market place unless they publish ideas and concepts in multiple languages, taking into consideration cultural and socio-political norms of communication."

The meaning and history of public relations are not uniform and universal. According to Lee Levitt (1997, p. 18), public relations practitioners outside the United States "seem more likely to have had experience in or with government." Unlike the United States, many public relations practice in developing nations evolved from the government bureaucratic system. In Nigeria, for example, emphasis is placed on contact skills and knowledge, rather than writing skills and working experience with the media and the various publics.

"Whether in America or Europe or Asia, we must translate corporate objectives into clear, concise messages appropriate to the audience, and then find the most effective means to convey those messages to penetrate the enormous information clutter that crowds everyone's brain every day." (Epley, 1992, p. 109-116).

According to Bob Shaffer of the Canadian-owned firm headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina, "public relations has the potential to be a real growth industry around the world in the 1990s; but practitioners who try to package their product for a one-world market will find few takers." (Epley, 1992, p. 109-116). The president of the public relations firm Epley Associates pointed out clearly that "no matter how small the globe shrinks, it is still made up of many tiny segments, each with its own unique culture, language, politics, and idiosyncracies;" and stressed that "global public relations is local public relations." (Epley, 1992, p. 109-116). A public relations media program or strategic planning developed in Washington, D.C. may be irrelevant in Harare, Zimbabwe or Moscow, Russia.

Serious and sustained research which leads to enhanced understanding and communication with the peoples of the world and sharing of international public relations experience between the various concerned groups are needed.

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